The teaching of St. Benedict

7.

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THE

TEACHING OF ST. BENEDICT.

TEACHING OF ST. BENEDI

BY THE

Very Rev. FRANCIS CUTHBERT DOYLE,

O.S.B., CANON OF NEWPORT AND MENEVIA.

' ' O grata colloquia,
Cum coelorum gaudia,
Benedictus exolicat."

LONDON : BURNS & GATES, Limited.
NEW YORK : CATHOLIC PUBLICATION SOCIETY CO.

HAROLD B LEE LIBRARY

BRIGHAM YOUNG UNTVERSmf

PROVO, UTAH

?[i^il obsfat.

RK. DD. T. A. Bury, O.S.B.

Abbas 5. Edmundi in Bur id.

R.A.D. G. R. Woods, O.S.B.
Cauon» Theolog,

fmprimatur.

RR. DD. Edwardus Anselmus O'Gorman, O.S.B.
Abbas S, Albani, Presses Generalise

CONTENTS.

CHAP.

Short Life of St. Benedict .
The Rule of St. Benedict
Prologue to the Rule .

I. Of the several Kinds of Monks .

II. What Manner of Man the Abbot ought

TO BE .

III. Of calling the Brethren to Council

IV. Of the Instruments of Good Works
V. Of Obedience . .

VI. Of Silence

VII. Of Humility .....
VIII. The Night Office

IX. The Number of Psalms to be said at the

Night Office .....

X. Celebration of Night Office in Summer
XI. Celebration of Night Office on Sundays

XII. Celebration of Lauds ....

XIII. Celebration of Lauds on Ferial or Week

Days .....

XIV. Celebration of Matins on Saints' Days
XV. When *' Alleluia" must be said .

XVI. Celebration of the Day Office .
XVII. Number of Psalms to be said during the

aforementioned Hours .
xvin. In what Order the Psalms are to be said
XIX. The Order and the Discipline of Psalmody
XX. Of Reverence at Prayer
XXI. The Deans of the Monastery
xxii. How THE Monks are to sleep
XXIII. Excommunication for Offences .

PAGE

I

6
19

25

46

72
7^

107

III
119
120

125

127
129
130

132
136
140

144

148

154

VI

Contents.

CHAP.

XXIV. Manner of Excommunication .
XXV. Of more Grievous Faults
XXVI. Of those who keep Company with the

Excommunicate ....
xxvii. The Abbot's Care for the Excommuni

cate

xxviii. Of those who being corrected do not

AMEND .....

xxix. Whether those who leave the Monas

tery ought to be received again
XXX. How Children are to be corrected
xxxi. The Cellarer .....
XXXII. The Substance of the Monastery .
xxxiii. Whether ALL ought equally to receive

WHAT IS NEEDFUlI

XXXIV. Of THE Weekly Servers in the Kitchen
XXXV. Of the Sick Brethren .
xxxvi. Of Old Men and of Children
xxxvii. The Weekly Reader
XXXVIII. The Quantity of Meat .
xxxix. The Measure of Drink .
XL. Times of Refection

xLi. That no one may speak after Compline
XLii. Of those who come late to the *'Work

OF God," or to Table
XLiii. How those who are excommunicated

ARE TO MAKE SATISFACTION .

XLiv. Of those who commit any Fault in the

Oratory . . .

XLv. Of those who offend in lighter Matters

xLvi. Making known the Hour for the Work

OF God . . . o . .

XLVii. Manual Labour .....

XLViii. The Observance of Lent

PAGE
J56

161
162
166
169

186
188

208

212
218
223
228

241

245

24g
250
260

1 In the Rule, Chapter XXXHI. is, " Whether Monks ought ta
have anything of their own ;" Chapter XXXIV., " Whether all ought
to receive what is nee.lful." We have joined together, under the
heading printed above, our remarks on both chapters. Therefore all
references to chapters, from this place to the end of the volume, indi-
cate the number of the chapter as it stands in the Rule.

Contents.

Vll

CHAP.

XLIX,

L.
LI.

LII.
LIII.
LIV.
LV.
LVI.
LVII.

LVIII.

LIX.

LX.

LXI.

LXII.

LXIII.

LXIV.

LXV.

LXVI.

LXVII.

LXVIII.

LXIX.

LXX.

LXXI.

LXXII.

Of Brethren who are either at a Dis-
tance FROM the Monastery, or on a
Journey ......

Of the Brethren who do not go far off

The Oratory of the Monastery

Entertainment of Guests

Reception of Letters or of Presents

Clothing ......

The Abbot's Table .....

Artificers of the Monastery

Manner of receiving Brothers to Reli-
gion .

Admission of Children ....

Admission of Priests ....

How Monks who are Strangers are to
BE received . . . . .

Of the Priests of the Monastery .

The Order of the Community

Of the Election of the Abbot

Of the Prepositus or Provost . .

The Porter of the Monastery

Of Brethren who are sent on a Journey

If a Brother is ordered to do Impossi-
bilities ......

That no one should defend another in
the Monastery ....

That no one presume to strike or to
excommunicate another .

Mutual Obedience

Religious Zeal .....

The highest Perfection not contained
in the Rum

PAGE

265
268

280
283
290

297
316

322

326

336

343
364
370

376

380

384

389
391

397

CORRIGENDA.

Page 2, line ii, for hermit Monk, read Monk.

„ 14, „ 2, „ liturguical, „ liturgical,

*> 69, „ 3, „ Z%, „ 8.

PREFACE

As the germs of all the lessons taught by St. Benedict
are stored up in the various enactments of his world-
famed Code, any work of which the purpose is to
explain that admirable piece of legislation may with
justice be called the " teaching " of the great patriarch
of the West. It is for this reason that we have ven-
tured to give what may appear to be a somewhat
ambitious title to the present volume, the object of
which is to make more generally known the wealth of
ascetical, liturgical, disciplinary, and administrative
lore which is locked up in the pages of the Rule. In
order to do this in an efficient manner, the works of
some of the most celebrated commentators have been
consulted, their various opinions carefully collated,
and no views advanced which cannot be defended on
the authority of scholars, whose learning and ability
are so well known that their judgment is accepted
with unwavering faith. Some brief account of the
chief among these will not, we think, be out of place
in the preface to a work which has been inspired by a
perusal of a few of their voluminous writings.

Of these commentators, the first, not in order of
time nor in excellence of literary merit, but in the

Preface.

sublimity of personal sanctity, is St. Hildegarde, who
was born in the diocese of Mayence, towards the end
of the eleventh century. For many years she led the
life of a recluse ; but seeing that very little good could
be effected by such utter separation from the world,
and that a wider sphere of influence would be opened
to her if she were to gather round her those of her
own sex and condition, she founded the monastery of
Mount St. Rupert, near Bingen on the Rhine, and
became its first Abbess. Only persons of noble or of
gentle birth were admitted to make profession of reli-
gious life within its enclosure. This law was estab-
lished in order to remove from the abode of peace
every cause of bickering and of strife, and to take
away occasions which might give rise to that lofty dis-
dain with which the ladies of those feudal times, even
when clad in penitential weeds, were accustomed to
look down upon those who were of a lower social
standing than themselves. During the period of her
cloistral life St. Hildegarde was favoured by Heaven
with many wonderful revelations and visions, which,
by the command of Pope Eugenius HI., were closely
examined in 1147 at the Council of Treves, and their
publication sanctioned by the assembled Bishops.
Her fame, both for learning and for sanctity, was so
great and widespread, that during her lifetime there
was scarcely any man of eminence who did not
correspond with her on subjects relating to the mystic
life, to morals, and to theology. These letters,
together with several other works, among which is a
commentary on the Rule, were published at Cologne.
One of the most remarkable opinions put forward by

Preface. xi

her, when explaining St. Benedict's legislation with
respect to the use of flesh-meat, is that he does not
prohibit the eating of fowl, but only of the flesh of
quadrupeds. She died in the year 1178, with a great
reputation for sanctity of a very exalted character.

Fully three centuries before the birth of St. Hilde-
garde, there lived and flourished in Gaul, during the
reign of Louis the Pious, a celebrated Monk named
Hildemar. His brilliant talents, his holy life, and his
natural aptitude for ruling others, and guiding them
with more than human prudence and discretion in the
paths of perfection, soon drew towards him the eyes
of his contemporaries. Rumour carried the fame of
him across the Alps into Italy, and the report of his
many excellences so wrought upon the mind of
Angelbertus, Archbishop of Milan, that he wrote to
him, earnestly beseeching him to cross over the bar-
rier which separated them, and help him to fan into a
brighter glow that Benedictine fire which had been
first kindled on the hillside of Subiaco. Overcome by
the earnestness of this appeal, Hildemar assented to
the wishes of the Archbishop, and joined him in his
cathedral city. But this was not to be the field of his
labour. Another centre of influence which offered a
wider scope for his zeal was elsewhere awaiting him.
Angelbertus accordingly sent him to Rampertus,
Bishop of Brescia, in which city there was a monas-
tery dedicated to SS. Faustinus and Jovita. Over
this Rampertus appointed him Superior, with an
injunction to introduce there a method of more strict
observance than had hitherto been maintained. It was
while engaged in this work of reform that Hildemar

xii Preface,

drew up his famous commentary, which Martene pro-
nounces to be, without exception, the best ever pro-
duced. Like many another excellent work, this of the
Gaulish Monk Hildemar was claimed by many writers
for a variety of authors. Leo Marsicanus and Peter
the Deacon attribute it to Paul the Deacon ; Trithe-
mius assigns it to Ruthard ; Martene, however, proves
well-nigh to demonstration that it is the genuine work
of Hildemar.

Contemporary with this famous Monk there was
another learned, pious, and illustrious man, who,
though not himself a Religious, has, by his liturgical
works, thrown great light upon that part of the Rule
which treats of the Church services and the Divine
Office. This is Amalarius Symphosius, who was born
at Metz, and served that church, first as its deacon and
afterwards as its priest. Care must be taken not to
confound him with Amalarius Fortunatus, who lived
at the same time, and was Archbishop of Treves.
Under Louis-le-Debonaire, the Amalarius of whom
we write, was director of the Palatine school. Abbot
of Hornbac, Chorepiscopus ^ of the diocese of Lyons,
and afterwards of Treves. In all matters pertaining
to the Liturgy he was, without exception, the most
learned man of his age. His first work on this

"^ Those who held this office were not Bishops, but priests
to whom the Bishop gave more ample jurisdiction than to the
ordinary clergy. Their duty was to oversee and to visit cer-
tain districts. Power was given to them to confer minor
Orders, and even the subdiaconate. The office is first men-
tioned in the year 314. It appeared in the Western Church
about the year 500. After 1050 it began to die out, and soon
became extinct.

Preface. xiii

subject, entitled Ecclesiastical Offices^ was published
in 820. Seven years afterwards he reproduced the
volume with many important additions and correc-
tions, which were the result of all that he had seen
and learnt in Rome, whither he had gone in quest of
further information concerning that branch of ecclesias-
tical learning which was the favourite study of his life.
The object of both these works is to explain and to
give reasons for the prayers and the ceremonies used
in the public worship of the Church. Many of these
elucidations are unquestionably very beautiful, and
calculated to fill the soul with the deepest reverence
for the mysteries of our holy faith ; but in striving
to give a mystical meaning to them all, Amalarius
carries his readers into depths, whence they emerge
puzzled indeed, but not by any means enlightened.
Some of his expressions about the Holy Eucharist
drew down upon him the wrath of Agobard, Arch-
bishop of Lyons, and of Florus his deacon. They
attacked him with voice and pen, and finally carried
their accusations against him before the Council of
Thionville. The Bishops who were there assembled
narrowly examined the objectionable words and
phrases, and after giving the question their attentive
consideration, pronounced his teaching to be ortho-
dox. Not satisfied with the verdict of the Fathers
of Thionville, his accusers next carried their suit
against him to the Council of Quierci. Here also
the points in dispute were once more submitted to
the consideration of competent judges, who, although
they did not condemn his propositions, yet declared
them to be dangerous. This little episode in the

xiv Preface.

history of his interesting book has not in any degree
detracted from the high esteem which it has always
enjoyed among lovers of liturgical lore. On the pub-
lication of his second work, The Order of the Anti-
phonary, Agobard once again took up arms, and
attacked him for having asserted that the Church of
Lyons had introduced certain novelties into the
Roman rite. His third literary effort is a treatise
explanatory of the ceremonies of Holy Mass.
Besides these, we have from his pen many letters,
and a rule of life which he drew up for the guidance
of canons. He died in 837, at St. Arnoult-de-Metz,
where he is honoured as a Saint.

The name of the next commentator of whom we
have to speak is one which is hateful to English ears.
The mere mention of Torquemada is enough to con-
jure up before the mental vision of our countrymen
the racks, the fires, the dungeons, the chains, and all
the other paraphernalia which Protestantism has con-
nected with the word " Inquisition." Yet, though
bearing the same name, and belonging to the same
family, Torquemada, the commentator on St. Bene-
dict's Rule (or Turrecremata, as he is most generally
called), is not the same personage as Torquemada the
arch-inquisitor. The former was born at Valladolid
in the year 1388, of one of the noblest famiHes of
Castile, and named John ; whereas the latter was not
born for fully thirty years afterwards, and was called
Thomas. At the age of fifteen John entered the Order
of St. Dominic, and with all the energy and the zeal
of his ardent nature threw himself into the many and
difficult duties of his cloistral life, and the profound

Preface. xv

theological and philosophical studies for which that
Order has ever been renowned. His mental abilities,
which were of no ordinary calibre, very soon attracted
the notice of his Superiors, who, in their anxiety to
afford him every opportunity for their proper cultiva-
tion and further development, sent him to the Univer-
sity of Paris. There he won his Doctor's cap, and,
according to some of his biographers, taught with great
applause in the schools. When recalled to Spain, he
held the office of Prior, first at Valladolid, and after-
wards at Toledo. In these and in other positions of
trust he showed so great capacity for the transaction
of difficult and delicate negotiations, that Pope Euge-
nius IV. summoned him to Rome, made him Master
of the Sacred Palace, and sent him as his own theo-
logian to the Council of Basle.^ There his vast learn-
ing, his untiring energy, and his persuasive eloquence
found ample scope in the defence of sound doctrine
and of the rights of the Holy See. But in spite of all
his efforts to win over its enemies, and to appease
their anger against the Sovereign Pontiff, he did not
succeed in extinguishing the fire of their hate, and
therefore left Basle for other scenes where his labour
would not be spent in vain. He soon, however^
returned, but only to use his influence to persuade both
princes and Bishops to proceed to the new Council
convoked by the Pope at Ferrara, and afterwards
transferred by him to Florence. Though prevented
by press of business from attending all the sessions of
this last-named Council, he yet did good service in
those which immediately preceded its close, and so

2 1431.

xvi Preface.

materially contributed to end the schism between the
Greek and the Roman Church, that the Pope conferred
upon him the title " Defender of the Faith/' and
shortly afterwards made him Cardinal, as a reward for
his successful legation to Charles VI I. of France.
The death of his patron Eugenius did not in any way
diminish the influence which he possessed in the
Roman Court, for Calixtus III., who succeeded to the
chair of St. Peter, raised him to the bishopric of Pales-
trina, from which see he was translated by Pius III.
to that of Sabina. Though Turrecremata's life was a
very busy one, and spent for the most part in the
transaction of business, yet he contrived amid his
many and weighty duties, to steal some few moments
which he devoted to the pursuit of his favourite
studies. The fruit of these furtive hours spent amongst
his beloved books were many literary works, chiefly
of an ecclesiastical or of an ascetical nature. Among
these is his commentary on our Holy Father's Rule.
He died at Rome in 1468, in the eightieth year of his
age.

Six years before the death of Turrecremata — that
is to say, in 1462 — there was born in the little village
of Trittenheim, which is about six miles distant from
Treves, another famous commentator on the Rule.^
He adopted the name of his native place, and is
known as John Trithemius. His early days seem to
have been blessed with but very little sunshine ; for
he was left an orphan while yet a mere infant, and at
seven had the ill-luck to be put under a stern step-

5 This commentary goes no farther than the first seven
chapters.

Preface. xvii

father by his mother. During the days of her second
wedded life she had several children. These absorbed
all the love and the attention of their parents, while
John was left to shift for himself as best he could.
One of the consequences of this neglect was, that
although the boy was consumed with a devouring
thirst for learning, yet at the age of fifteen he could
scarcely read. By the aid of a neighbour, to whose
house he used frequently to retire for the purpose of
study, he also learnt to write, but that only indiffer-
ently well. At last, seeing that it was impossible to
acquire at Trittenheim that which was so easily to be
obtained elsewhere, he determined to abandon his
home, such as it was, and to go in search of wisdom
at one of those fountain-heads of which he had already
heard so much. Of these, the nearest to his home
was at Treves, and thither he went like many another
poor scholar, with no other dower than a bright in-
telligence and a pure heart. Between Treves and
Heidelberg he spent the next five years, at the end of
which time he had made so great progress in every
branch of letters that he was on all hands considered
to be a remarkably apt and clever scholar. Now that
he had acquired some repute, thoughts of home began
to stir within his brain, and made him once again
turn his face towards Trittenheim. On his way
thither, he arrived one evening, towards the end of
January 1482, at Spanheim. The snow had fallen
heavily all day long, night was fast coming on, and,
well-nigh worn out with the fatigue of his journey, he
found himself compelled to ask for shelter at the
Benedictine monastery. He knocked at the great

xvlii Preface.

gate, and to the cheery " Benedicite " of the porter
uttered a heartfelt " Deo gratias." The doors were
thrown open, and he was admitted into the guest-house.
As he entered, a sort of inspiration seemed to flash
into his mind, and an internal voice to say to him,
" Here must thou fix thy abode." For a whole week
the severity of the weather made it impossible for him
to advance any farther on his homeward way ; but
during those days of repose there was ample time for
much deep cogitation, the result of which was that
Trithemius came to the conclusion that he had at
last found his home, and in the words of the Psalmist
could exclaim : " Haec requies mea in seternum.'"
Falling at the feet of the Abbot, he humbly asked to
be admitted to the brotherhood. His petition was
acceded to, and on March 21, the feast of St. Bene-
dict, he was clothed in the holy habit. As it was not
necessary in those days to spend a full year in the state
of probation, he was solemnly professed on Novem-
ber 21 of that same year. Some idea may be formed
of the high esteem in which he was held by those
with whom he had thrown in his lot, from the fact
that though last in the community, and a mere tyro in
religious life, he was chosen by them to be their Abbot.
It was with fear and trembling that the recently-pro-
fessed Monk accepted the weighty charge which his
brethren thus thrust into his hands ; for, young and in-
experienced as he was, he yet had quite enough worldly
wisdom to see that the task before him was neither a
light nor an easy one. Even Abbot Samson at St.
Edmundsbury had not a gloomier outlook when he
first took up the reins of office, than was that which

Preface, xix

met the view of Trithemius when the suffrages of his
brethren seated him in the abbatial chair. The tem-
poralities were in utter confusion ; the buildings
crumbhng into ruins ; the community was burdened
with debt, and in a state of religious disciphne very
far from that which a fervent religious man would like
it to be. Looking with clear and penetrating eye into
all these things, like the brave man that he was, he did
not suffer himself to be dismayed by them ; but under-
standing clearly what he had to do, and knowing well
what he himself meant to do, he at once vigorously
set to work to make the crooked straight, the rough
plain, the chaotic orderly. For this purpose he first
laid hold of the monastic purse, and, to the wonder of
his Cellarer, succeeded by strict economy in keeping
it tolerably well filled — a condition to which it had
been for years a stranger. Having thus driven the
wolf from the door, he next directed the full power of
his energetic mind and the strength of his iron will to
expel ignorance and idleness from the cloisters. By
word and by example he infused a spirit of study into
his Monks, and gave every unemployed hand abun-
dant work to do. The fcrty-eight volumes which
constituted the whole wealth of their library were
cleared of their dust. Monks were now seen poring
over their pages. Some were busily engaged in
preparing parchment sheets, others were employed in
drawing on these the lines which were to guide the
hands of the copyists, and these in their turn were
slowly and carefully writing and making fresh tomes
to fill the empty shelves. Those who possessed any
artistic skill painted and illuminated the initial letters,

XX Preface.

and those who were capable of doing nothing else
stitched together the written sheets and bound them
into goodly volumes. Before Trithemius ceased to be
Abbot, the forty-eight books had swelled into 1646
ponderous tomes. The whole face of the abbey was
changed. Both materially and spiritually it had re-
newed its youth, and could now lift up its head before
the world without any fear of being put to confusion.
The reputation of the man who had effected all this
soon spread throughout Germany, and attracted to the
Abbey ofSpanheim many of the most illustrious men
of the time. They came to visit and to confer with
him upon various knotty problems which they thought
that his vast learning might enable them to explain.
Close and familiar intercourse with him, instead of
diminishingtheir admiration of, and their esteem for him,
served only to heighten these the more ; and they left
him charmed with his unaffected piety, and astonished
at the wide range of his knowledge. But in spite of
his great attainments, his holy life, and his unblemished
orthodoxy, there were envious hearts and narrow, un-
cultured minds which accused him both of heresy and
of the practice of the black art. These men, as well
as their silly asseverations, he treated with that good-
humoured contempt which they deserved. Yet there
cannot be any doubt that the foolish chattering of these
empty-headed busybodies, backed by the smoulder-
ing discontent of some of those who were smarting
under his reform, eventually led to his abandonment
of Spanheim and of the ungrateful brethren for whom
he had done so much. This misfortune occurred in
1505, while he was at Heidelberg, whither Philip,

Preface. xxi

Count Palatine of the Rhine, had invited him, to hear
his views upon some monastic questions in which he
himself was deeply interested. It was while confined
to his sick-bed that he learnt of the revolt of his Monks
against his authority. As soon as he was able to rise
he hastened to Cologne, to see whether he could gather
any authentic information about the cause of this
outbreak. Failing to obtain this at Cologne, he has-
tened to Spires, and there learnt that the only complaint
which they could bring against him was that he had
obliged them to apply themselves to mental culture,
and had enforced strict discipline with too firm a hand.
This so disgusted him that he turned his back upon
them for ever. He was not long without a home and
loving subjects who could appreciate his worth ; for
the Abbey of Wurtzburg was conferred upon him, and
there he peacefully spent the last decade of his life in
prayer, in study, and in the composition of learned
works which fill several folio volumes. Here also, in
the midst of his weeping children, he breathed forth
his pure soul into the hands of his Maker, on the day
after the festival of Christmas, in the year 15 16.

Earlier than Trithemius, by well-nigh two cen-
turies, lived the next commentator of whom we have
to speak. This was Peter Boherius, who was born
at Narbonne, and in early youth embraced the mon-
astic profession. After some years of a most exem-
plary life, he was raised to the dignified position of
Abbot of the monastery of St. Anian. Here his
brilliant virtues, his great learning, and the skill
which he displayed in the administration of his
temporalities, marked him out as one who, in a

xxii Preface.

wider field of action, would develop all the capacity
of an able ruler of the Church of God. Nor did his
after years belie the promise of his early manhood.
The germs of his great qualities budded forth and
increased with his years, till at last they drew upon
him the eyes of those who were anxiously looking
out for a good shepherd to grasp and wield the
pastoral staff of the widowed see of Civita Vecchia.
He was therefore drawn by them from the compara-
tive obscurity of his abbey, and seated in the epis-
copal chair of that city. As a Bishop, he displayed
before the admiring gaze of his contemporaries all
those excellences which St. Benedict requires in those
w^ho, in his opinion, hold the place of Christ.^ He
was kind, considerate, prudent, discreet, merciful ;
manifesting towards every member of his flock the
love of a father as well as the magisterial dignity,
the firmness, and the authority of a ruler. It was
during this period of his life that he published his
second commentary on the Rule. The first had
dealt wath the Benedictine code from a legal and
administrative point of view ; the second was devoted
exclusively to the explanation of its ascetical and
spiritual side, which leads men to perfection. The
work was published in 1 316, and speaking of it, the
author says : " With fear and trembling I wrote this
commentary by the light of the lamp which burns in
the cave in which our Holy Father spent the first
years of his religious life."

One of the most famous and voluminous writers

^ *' Abbas, enim, Christi agere vices in monasterio credi-
tur." Regula, cap. ii.

Preface. xxiii

on the Rule of St. Benedict was born at Utrecht in
1588. This was James van Hseften, whose twelve
books of Monastic Disquisitions fill a huge double-
columned tome of more than one thousand pages. It
is a work which is a veritable mine of ascetical and
of monastic lore ; and though some of the views
advanced by its author did not please Martene, we
have no hesitation in saying that anything better on
the Benedictine Rule and method of life it would be
impossible to find. At a comparatively early age,
Haeften entered the Order at the Abbey of Aflflighem,
in Brabant. By a life of laborious study and the
practice of the strictest asceticism he there became
one of the most erudite and most holy men of his
age. It is not, therefore, surprising to learn that he
soon acquired so great an ascendency over the minds
and the hearts of his brethren as to induce them to
accept a severe reform, and to adopt the constitutions
of the congregation of SS. Viton and Hidulphus.
Practical experience, however, has, since that day,
proved that these were so rigid and so austere as to
be a hindrance rather than a help in the practice of
Christian perfection. The Holy See had therefore
to interfere, and, with that wisdom which character-
ises all her actions, to soften the asperities of these
enactments and make them tolerable to human
nature, which they would otherwise have discouraged
and broken down by their unbending sternness.
After a most holy and exemplary life, Haeften died
calmly and peacefully in his monastic cell at Afiflig-
hem, on July 31, 1648.

Little more than six years after the above-men-

xxiv Preface.

tioned date — that is to say, on December 22, 1654
— there was born at St. Jean-de-L6ne, in the diocese
of Langres, one who was destined to win for himself
a reputation for learning, second only to that of
Mabillon himself This was Edmund Martene, who,
at the age of eighteen, took the habit of St. Benedict
among the Religious of the congregation of St.
Maur. His abilities were so extraordinary and his
ardour for study so intense, that it was deemed
advisable to send him to some monastery in which
he would find those facilities which would enable
him to do ample justice to the bright intelligence
with which God had endowed him. His Superiors
accordingly placed him in the Abbey of St. Germain-
des-Pres at Paris. There he met with an appreciative
master in the person of Dom D'Achery, under whose
direction he began to work that vein of monastic
learning at which he laboured with such unflagging
energy for the next sixty-five years. At the instance
of his Superiors, he undertook in 1708 that famous
journey of which the result was a learned work
entitled Gallia Christiana. In the course of his
travels he visited all the principal abbeys and cathe-
dral churches of Touraine, Poitou, Berri, Nivernois,
and Burgundy ; ransacked their archives, and rescued
from dust and from oblivion every document which
could throw ever so faint a light upon the ecclesias-
tical history of the kingdom. " After a time he had
the good fortune to meet with a kindred spirit in the
person of Dom Durand, who for the next six-and-
twenty years laboured by his side with so great
diligence, that there was not in France any note-

Preface. xxv

worthy collection of books or of manuscripts through
which their eagle glance had not searched. These
two admirably matched companions set out in 171 8
upon a second voyage of discovery through the Low
Countries and through Germany, to collect materials
for a civil history of France. This in due time
appeared ; but their wanderings, in addition to the
history, produced also another work, called Z^ Voyage
Litteraire^ in which were described all the objects of
interest which they had seen in the abbeys of France
and of Germany. A lettre-de'Cachet launched against
Dom Durand separated him from Martene, who
thus lost his ablest coadjutor in the many literary
works upon which he was engaged. This loss, how-
ever, instead of discouraging him, added only fresh
vigour to his efforts and to his untiring industry.
True to the law of labour which he learnt from his
Rule, he wrought at his appointed task unto the very
end. Yet, though deeply engrossed in the absorbing
pursuits to which his whole life was devoted, Dom
Martene was every whit as good a Religious as he
was a profound and enthusiastic scholar. No study
was ever allowed to interfere with his daily cloistral
duties. At the midnight Office the stall of Dom
Edmund was never vacant ; at the early meditation
his ardent piety was a source of edification to his
brethren ; at his daily Mass his childlike faith
enkindled into fresh fervour the devotion of those
who felt themselves growing cold in the service of
God. Towards his Superiors he was as obedient
and as submissive as the most recently clothed
novice, and on every point of Rule and of monastic

xxvi Preface.

discipline few were more exact and none more un-
sparing of self than he was. His commentary on the
Rule is one of the most learned that has ever yet
appeared. There is scarcely an author of any note
who has treated of it with whose work he is not
acquainted, and from which he has not drawn some-
thing to elucidate and to confirm the views which he
himself adopts. His own published works fill four-
teen folio, seven quarto, and seven smaller volumes.
After a long life of most exemplary religious observ-
ance, and of literary labour we might almost say
unexampled in the annals of our Order, this true son
of St. Benedict died a sudden, but not an unprovided,
death on June 20, 1739, in the eighty-fifth year of
his age.

While Dom Martene was just beginning his
religious career, and preparing himself for those vast
literary labours in which his days were afterwards
to be spent, there was born in 1672, at Mesnil-le-
Horgne, near Commercy, in Lorraine, Augustine
Calmet, who almost equalled him in the extent of his
vast erudition. As soon as he had attained his six-
teenth year he entered the Benedictine monastery of
St. Vannes, and very early began to display for the
acquisition of Oriental languages that talent which,
in his more mature years, did him such excellent
service in explaining the sacred text. His growth in
religious perfection seems to have kept pace with his
steady advance in secular science ; for so highly did
his Superiors esteem him for it, that at the early age
of two-and-twenty they made him Sub-prior of the
Abbey of Munster. In his new abode the youthful

Preface. xxvii

Superior was happy to find several Religious with
tastes similar to his own, and with abilities admirably-
adapted for the pursuit of those very branches
towards which he felt himself specially drawn. These
he gathered round him, and formed into a sort of
literary academy, consisting of from eight to ten
members, who devoted themselves with the utmost
ardour to those studies which tended to throw light
upon the obscurities of Sacred Scripture. It was
during his residence at this abbey that he wrote his
well-known commentaries upon the Bible. His
original intention was to have published these in
Latin, inasmuch as they were addressed chiefly to the
learned world ; but on the urgent persuasion of
Mabillon and the Abbe Duguet, he at last consented
with much reluctance to give them to the public in
the vulgar tongue. This was then, and is now con-
sidered to have been, a grave mistake. For though
possessed of a treasure of erudition equalled by few
of the learned men of his time, Calmet was yet want-
ing in that critical faculty which would have made
him reject much that his simplicity of character and
his childlike faith caused him to accept without either
doubt or question. Hence his great and noble work
is somewhat disfigured by an overgrowth of legends
and of fables, which, though graceful and beautiful in
themselves, are yet like ivy twining round a splendid
monument, obscuring its grand proportions and its
exquisite carvings. Making but little account of the
many excellences of his book, scoffers and unbelievers
lay hold of these its defects, and employ them as
missiles to hurl against the teaching and the practice

xxviii Preface.

of the Church. To the devout, the reverent, and the
believing portion of mankind, his commentaries are a
never-failing source of instruction and of edification.
So highly were they thought of by his brethren that,
as some slight token of their appreciation, they made
him Abbot of St. Leopold's at Metz in 171 8, and of
the Abbey at Sens in 1728. It was at this last-named
place that he died in 1757, full of virtues and of years.
His commentary on the Rule is in two quarto volumes.
His complete works fill twenty-six similar volumes.

Besides the writings of these authors, we have had
access to an unpublished commentary on the Rule
written by Father Baker, Monk and Priest of our own
Congregation. He was born in 1575, and died in
1 64 1. This work seems to be a digest of the com-
mentaries of St. Hildegarde, Turrecremata, Smarag-
dus, Trithemius, and Perez, and is written in a garru-
lous sort of style, very different from that of his best
production, Sancta Sophia. It is so wordy that the
venerable father apologises for it to the good nuns of
Cambrai, for whose use he wrote, saying : " Pknow
that I am oftentimes long and tedious, if not super-
fluous, in some of my discourses ; but it is my manner,
and I can do no better." Yet, though one is forced
now and then to wade through pages of long, round-
about sentences, which ever seem to be on the point of
conveying some information and yet never convey it,
there are nevertheless to be found in these pages
many shrewd observations and much rare and useful
knowledge.

Supporting ourselves upon the learning and the
authority of these holy and erudite men, we have,

Preface. xxix

while following the order observed in the Rule itself,
endeavoured to make clear everything which' in its
various chapters seems to call for explanation. In
this way there has been brought together concerning
the teaching of St. Benedict a mass of antiquarian,
ascetical, administrative, and disciplinary information,
which will, perhaps, be all the more acceptable to the
reader because it is not encumbered with the lengthy
disquisitions, with the discussion of collateral questions,
and the pursuit of side issues to be found in a kind of
almost reckless profusion in the ponderous tomes of
the great commentators.

As the illustrious patriarch of Western Monachism
is said by St. Gregory to have been ** full of the spirit
of all the just," as he gathered from the practice and
the writings of all who preceded him the very essence
of their religious teaching, and as most of the foun-
ders of Orders since his day have profited by the
wisdom of his world-famed Code, there is every reason
to hope that laymen, as well as Priests, and Reli-
gious of every Order, will find in this little work some-
thing which will instruct and edify.

St. Michael's Priory, Hereford,
ist March, 1887.

THE

TEACHING OF ST. BENEDICT.

A SHORT LIFE OF OUR HOLY FATHER
ST. BENEDICT.

In the year of our Lord 480, St. Benedict and his

twin sister, St. Scholastica, were born in Nursia, a

town in Southern Italy. Their father's name was

Anicius Eupropius, their mother's name, Abundantia,

who died in giving them birth. At the age of seven

:years, Benedict, under the care of his nurse Cyrilla,

was sent to school at Rome, and there, for the space of

rsix years, applied himself to the rudimentary studies

which usually occupy the minds of youth during the

early days of boyhood. As his reason developed, and

he began to be conscious of that which was evil, the

immoral conduct of his schoolfellows' gave so rude

^ shock to his upright, delicate conscience, that he

.resolved to flee from the contamination of their evil

.example, and devote himself to the pursuit of that

wisdom which is as a garland of joy upon the brows

of youth, and as a crown of glory upon the head of

old age.

Accompanied by his faithful nurse, he turned his

B

The Teaching of St. Benedict.

back upon the schools of the city, and, under the
guidance of the Holy Spirit, lifted up his eyes towards
those mountains, among which he was to be trained
and prepared for the accomplishment of those mighty
deeds which God intended to be wrought by his
hands. As he journeyed on, he was given to under-
stand that, like the Baptist, he must retire into the
desert ; therefore, bidding farewell to Cyrilla, he made
for the mountainous district of Subiaco, which lies at
the distance of about forty miles from Rome. At
Subiaco he met with a holy hermit Monk named
Romanus, to whom he communicated his design, and
from his hands received the religious habit. When
thus enrolled among the soldiers of Christ, and clad
in the armour of the Gospel of peace, he retired to a
cave in the side of the mountain ; and there, unknown
to all save God and Romanus, he gave himself up to
the rigorous exercises of a penitential life. He was
scarcely fourteen years of age when he thus turned
away from all that the world could offer to him^
and embraced that which, to the men of his time^
must have seemed to be a living death. For the
next fifteen years his life was, for the most part>
hidden with Christ in God. At the feet of the
great Master and Model he was learning to know him-
self, to despise himself, to tame and bring his flesh into
subjection, that he might stand before the world, in
God's good time, as a leader and teacher of men in
the paths of Christian perfection.

His sanctity did not long escape the notice of
those who dwelt in the neighbouring valleys. Rumour
soon carried his fame far and wide, and those who

A Short Life of St. Benedict.

were wearied and disgusted with the wickedness of a
corrupt and decaying age, began to flock to him, and
to consult him about their eternal wellbeing. Among
those who were desirous of learning the science of
Christian asceticism, from one so well qualified to
impart it, were the Monks of the monastery of Vico-
Varro. These men seem to have been living in any-
thing but the odour of sanctity ; for the youthful her-
mit, whom they wished to choose for their Abbot, had
evidently heard of their scandalous lives. When they
besought him to go with them, and undertake their
guidance and their government, he told them that as
his life was not their life, and his ways were not their
ways, they would speedily weary of his presence
among them, and would gladly rid themselves of his
company. To all his warnings and forebodings they
turned a deaf ear, and, yielding at last to their impor-
tunity, he left his beloved cave at Subiaco, and
assumed the government of the monastery.

But soon the prophetic words of the man of God
were verified. When the pressure of his monastic
rule began to gall their necks, they chafed under it
and murmured against it^ and would have cast it
from them. They had, however, set over themselves
a man of fixed purpose and of indomitable will. He
disregarded their murmurings, and held steadily on
his course of reform. At last they plainly saw that
they could not bear it any longer, and, as it was im-
possible to depose him from the position to which
their suffrages had raised him, they determined
secretly to make away with him. For this purpose
they mingled poison with his drink; but when the

The Teaching of St, Benedict.

man of God had lifted up his hand over the cup, and
had blessed it, the vessel broke, as if it had been
shivered to atoms by the well-directed blow of a stone,
instead of being blessed by the saving sign of the
Cross. Perceiving by this the wicked designs of the
Monks, and seeing that labour bestowed on them
would be labour spent in vain, he retired from their
midst, and returned to his much-loved solitude of
Subiaco.

Thither men soon began to flock to him for direc-
tion and guidance in the ways of God, and, having
learnt from his lips the science of sciences, were
unwilling ever again to leave him. They preferred to
await with him in the peace and the retirement of
the mountain, and in the exercise of every Christian
virtue, the summons of the Great Master. To accom-
modate all such as these, St. Benedict, during the
next nineteen years, had to construct among the hills
which surrounded his cavern no fewer than twelve
monasteries. Though giving to the world such a
brilliant example of every virtue, yet he could not
escape the persecution of the wicked. A neighbouring
priest, named Florentius, maddened with envy at the
thought of the great reputation for holiness which the
Saint had acquired, and at the widespread influence
Avhich he had gained over the people, did everything
in his power to blacken his reputation, and to break
the spell by which he held captive the hearts of all.
St. Benedict, with unalterable patience, endured this
man's unmerited persecutions, hoping thus to soften
the wickedness of his heart, and to win him over to
a better life ; but to no purpose. Therefore, seeing

A Short Life of St. Benedict.

that all the enmity of Florentius was directed against
himself, he resolved to withdraw to some other place,
in which he would be beyond the reach of this wicked
priest's envenomed tongue, and the malice of his
unregenerate heart. Accordingly, in the year 529, he
bade farewell to the beloved spot in which he had so
long and so lovingly served our Lord, and, travelling for
about fifty miles in a southerly direction from Subiaco,
came upon the ruins of an old Roman fort, perched high
up the side of Monte Cassino. There he determined to
fix his abode, and thither men soon began to gather
round him, as they had already previously gathered
round him at Subiaco. They came in so great num-
bers, that he was forced to build for their accommo-
dation a monastery, which afterwards became a centre
of piety, of virtue, and of learning for the whole
world. Here he spent the last thirteen years of his
life; and here, on the 21st March, in the year 543,
standing before the altar of God, supported in the
arms of his spiritual children, and with the words of
prayer upon his lips, he breathed forth his pure soul
into the hands of his Maker.

THE RULE OF ST. BENEDICT.

It is very probable that our Holy Father began to
write his Rule at Subiaco, about the year 510, at the
time when men were flocking to him in such num-
bers that he was forced* to found twelve monasteries
for their accommodation. But internal evidence,
which is furnished by the Rule itself, puts it beyond
a doubt that it was not completed till St. Benedict
had founded the famous monastery of Monte Cassino.
For if we remember that there were in each of the
twelve monasteries only twelve Monks, it will be
evident that there could not be any necessity for the
appointment of Deans, of which bespeaks in the twenty-
first chapter. That and several others must, there-
fore, have been inserted by him about the year 536,
when he sent St. Placid into Sicily, and gave him a
copy of the Rule for his guidance, and for the govern-
ment of the monastery which he was sent to found
in that island.

This was the first monastic code which was written
for the West. Eastern ascetics had been trained
and disciplined by the legislation of St. Basil, and
all those who in the West had up to this time devoted
themselves to a cenobitical life had formed themselves
to virtue either by the enactments of his Rule, or by
those of which Cassian had made such an ample
collection.

The Rule of St. Benedict.

With the works of both these illustrious men
St. Benedict was well acquainted, and from them
took all that he deemed useful and necessary for the
government of those who had gathered round him ;
nevertheless, he did not limit himself to such legisla-
tion as he had found in force among the Cenobites
of his time, but drew from his own sage experience
most of those broad, far-reaching enactments which
have made his Rule famous for its more than human
prudence and discretion.

A glance at that Rule will reveal to the most
casual reader that its two guiding principles are
obedience and labour. Illuminated by the Holy
Spirit, St Benedict chose them out to remedy the
evils of the day in which his lot was cast. For he had
in very truth fallen upon evil times. Not one ray
of light or of hope broke in upon him from north or
from south, from east or from west. Decay, confusion,
disintegration, and death were everywhere. In the
West, the vast structure of the Roman Empire was
crumbling into dust ; in the East, the discord and the
disunion consequent upon theological strife made
desolate the sanctuary, and blinded the eyes of the
rulers, so that they saw not the advent of the terrible
storm which was about to burst upon them. The
Church was rent and divided by heresy and by schism.
The clergy were lax and dissolute ; the laity had
practically given up truth, justice, and morality. The
fresh young nations from the northern forests were
bursting in wave upon wave of barbaric invasion
upon the effete civilisation of the West. Men had
broken loose from control, and were rioting in their

8 The Teaching of St. Benedict,

liberty ; the sword was in every man's hand, so that
the labourer could not apply to his toil, and the skil-
ful forgot their cunning in the years of confusion and
of darkness which succeeded the overthrow of the totter-
ing Empire of the West. St. Benedict had fled inta
the mountains from the vice and the corruption of that
wicked age. But he carried with him in his heart
those two grand principles which were to save the
world. He took with him the principle of obedience,
to cement together the scattered elements of human
society ; and the law of labour, by which man accom-
plishes the task marked out for him by God, both as-
a punishment of his rebellion, and as a remedy of the
ills which sprang from that primal revolt against
authority.

He imbued all those who, like himself, had fled
from the world, and had gathered round him as their
teacher, with the same spirit with which he himself
was animated. He taught them to obey ; he taught
them to labour ; and the vigour, the life, the energy,
which flow from these principles permeate through and
pervade all the legislation which he drew up in order
to enforce his teaching, and to make it useful as a
method of spiritual training for others. This admir-
able code is divided into seventy-three chapters. Of
these, nine treat of the general duties of the Abbot
and of the Monks ; thirteen regulate the public ser-
vice, of the Divine worship ; twenty-nine are con-
cerned with discipline, with the faults which are usually
committed against it, and with the penal code by
which those faults are to be punished ; ten have refer-
ence to the internal administration of the monastery ;

The Rule of St. Benedict.

and twelve are devoted to miscellaneous subjects, such
as the reception of guests, and the conduct of Monks
when travelling.^ Its excellence, as an implement
of spiritual training, soon became apparent ; for not
only did those who came to submit themselves to St.
Benedict eagerly adopt it, but also those who had
heretofore been under the guidance of other Rules
gladly accepted this new legislation, which bore upon
it the impress of a wisdom more than human, and of
a fatherly compassionate love which reminded them
of the charity of Christ.

The fruit of the teaching which it imparted, and
of the discipline which it enforced, very speedily made
itself manifest in the Church of God. Communities
of men and of women began to be formed, to spread
themselves far and wide throughout the land of Italy,
and to pass thence into other nations. Full of the
Spirit of God, adorned with every virtue, learned,
laborious, and animated with zeal for the advancement
of righteousness, they speedily began to gather round
them the scattered people, and to exert over them a
most beneficial influence. They became missionaries,
carrying the light of truth to those who either had
never known it, or had forgotten it ; they taught those
whom war and the miseries of the times had impo-
verished, and changed into vagabonds, to till the
ground, and to live by the labour of their hands ;
they gathered the demoralised populations round
them, and formed them once again to social and
political life; they preserved the literature of the
ancient world, and imparted their knowledge, their
1 Montalembert, Moines d' Occident, torn. ii. liv. iv.

I o The Teaching of St. Be7iedict.

culture, and their science to the youthful generation ;
they were, in one word, the apostles, the civilisers, and
the teachers of the world. Their services to the
Church cannot be over-estimated ; and these they
were enabled to bestow through the character which
the Rule impressed upon them. That character is
holiness, which is the outcome of a spirit of interior
recollection, engendered by the various ordinances of
the Rule. To the casual reader this will not, per-
haps, reveal itself, and he will be astonished that we
should ascribe to any system of legislation, which,
like the Rule of St. Benedict, deals for the most part
with external observances, the growth of an internal
spirit, always alive to, and eagerly on the watch to
comply with, the inspirations and the movements
of the Holy Ghost. But if he take the trouble to
examine the drift of these external observances, and
the purpose for which they are prescribed, he will
begin to see that they are not a mere piece of cere-
monial, the purpose of which is to procure external
decorum, but a systematically organised code of laws,
devised for the express purpose of removing from the
soul all worry, all turmoil, and all else that would
blind its eyes to the gracious presence of the Para-
clete, and deafen its ears to the sweet whisperings of
His low, soft voice. Hence, by an exact and careful
observance of these various precepts, which remove
from their path all hindrances to the acquisition of
sanctity, they were enabled to advance in perfection,
to become Saints, and, by becoming Saints, to further
God's cause, which is on'e with the cause of the
Church.

The Rule of St. Benedict. 1 1

It IS principally owing to this, and to the many
centuries during which it was the sole guide and the
master of all who embraced the monastic life, that the
Rule of St. Benedict brought forth so many Saints,
doctors, enlightened rulers, wise and experienced
guides, who prayed for, and taught, and governed the
people of God. The historians of the Order reckon
upon its roll of honour no fewer than 55,700 Saints ;
they tell us that from the cloisters of St. Benedict there
have gone forth 4600 bishops, 1600 archbishops, 200
cardinals, 5 1 patriarchs, and 46 popes ; so that the
government of the Universal Church was in the hands
of the children of our Holy Father for more than five
hundred years. Emperors, kings, philosophers, artists,
and poets ; poor peasants and pale thought-worn
students ; rough soldiers and men of the world, have
taken that Rule as their guide, and it has made them
Saints.

This is not to be wondered at ; " for it is an epitome
of Christianity, a learned and mysterious abridgment
of all the doctrines of the Gospel, all the institutions
of the Fathers, and all the counsels of perfection.
Here prudence and simplicity, humility and courage,
severity and gentleness, freedom and dependence,
eminently appear. Here correction has all its firm-
ness, condescension all its charm, command all its
vigour, and subjection all its repose ; silence has all
its gravity, and words have their grace ; strength has
its exercise, and weakness its support ; and yet
always St. Benedict calls it but ^ a beginning,' in order
to keep his children in holy fear."^

2 Bos suet, Panegyrique de SL Benoit,

12

The Teaching of St. Benedict.

A rough division may be made of all its various
laws, into statutes or precepts, and into counsels. By
a statute ox precept^ we mean those laws which either
command or prohibit in an absolute manner. They
may be known by such formulas as "It is not lawful;
Let no one presume ; Let him be corrected." By a
counsel^ we mean all such injunctions as are not
ordered in an absolute manner, and for which, if they
are carried out, those who obey them are praised.
Of this class we consider the following to be instances :
" That obedience will then be acceptable to God," &c.^
" The sixth degree of humility is, if a Monk be con-
tent with all that is meanest," &c.^ " Let those upon
whom God bestows the gift of abstinence," &c.^ " Let
us add something over and above to our wonted task,"

• The Rule binds under the penalty of mortal sin
in all grave transgressions against the three vows. In
all statutes or precepts, the probability is that it binds
under the penalty of venial sin, as is taught by St.
Thomas, Hoeften, Turrecremata, and St. Antoninus.
The counsels of the Rule do not bind under the
penalty of even venial sin.

The obligation of Superiors with respect to the
Rule is to observe it, and to cause their subjects to
observe it. It is their office to explain or to interpret
those things in it which are obscure ; e.g, what matters
are to be considered of great moment and what of
little moment, what clothes are suitable for the climate
in which they live, &c. ; unless, of course, all these and

2 Chap. V. ■* Chap. vii.

^ Chap. xl. ® Chap. xlix.

The Rule of St. Benedict. 1 3

similar matters are determined by the legislation of
Constitutions. They have the power to "dispense their
subjects from the disciplinary enactments of the Rule
whenever there is a legitimate cause.

THE PROLOGUE TO THE RULE,

As St. Benedict's purpose in writing his Rule was to
draw up a code of moral, liturguical, and disciplinary
laws, by which to guide the daily actions of all who
should seek to serve God in his Institute, he very wisely
prefaced the various enactments which he deemed
necessary for this purpose with a fevv^ words of exhor-
tation and of encouragement. He tells them that he is
about to establish a school, in which the science of
salvation is to be taught ; he hopes that no ordinance
which he may think necessary will be either too
rigorous or too burdensome ; and that even if it should
prove to be so, those who find it somewhat severe will
not, on that account, straightway give up the pursuit
of that which is of such vital importance to all, but
will persevere until they have mastered the difficul-
ties which block the way of every beginning.

In order to reassure all who might be afraid that
he was about to make the path to heaven more narrow
and strait than it really is, he tells them that he
wishes to lead them to God by no other way than by
that which is pointed out to all by Jesus Christ, and
is described in the pages of the Gospel. In that
Gospel, we see that all Christianity rests upon three
principles — self-denial, patient endurance of the ills
of life, and imitation of Jesus Christ — all which our
Lord expresses in these well-known words : " If any

The Prologue to the Rule. 15

man will be My disciple, let him deny himself, and take
up his cross and follow Me." On these same prin-
ciples St. Benedict founds his Rule, and tells those
who are willing to submit themselves to his teaching
that its aim is to impart the science which lies hidden
under these three pregnant principles. In the first
place, he states, in as many words, that his teaching is
directed to, and is meant for, only those 'Vwho, renoun-
cing their own will, take upon themselves the strong
and bright armour of obedience, to fight under the
Lord Christ, our true King ; " secondly, he tells them
that they must carry their cross, when he exhorts them
" to share by patience in the sufferings of Christ ;'^
thirdly, he teaches them to follow Christ, when he bids
them " never to depart from the school of Christ, but
to persevere in the monastery in His doctrine until
death, that they may deserve afterwards to be par-
takers of His kingdom."

Therefore, the scope of his Rule is identical with
the scope of the Gospel ; it is meant to make the way
unto eternal happiness a secure and easy way. By a
close observance of its precepts, the holy legislator
himself was able to obtain great graces and to reach
a very eminent degree of glory. St. Bernard very
beautifully expresses this when he says : " What is the
way by which Benedict, the beloved of the Lord, so
gloriously ascended to heaven, except the Order
which he instituted and the Rule of life which had its
origin in him ? That is the way which the beloved of
the Lord ascended ; for the holy man could not teach
a doctrine different from the life which he led. This
is the greatest source of the confidence of those who

1 6 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

follow his footsteps by keeping the Rule which he
wrote for their instruction." Therefore, as St. Bene-
dict, and, after him, so many hundreds of thousands
who have observed his Rule, found that it made the
way unto heaven a sweet and secure path, so also,
without doubt, will all those find it to be, who are
treading in their footsteps, and are endeavouring to
observe its precepts as best they may. " To those
who shall do these things," he says at the end of the
Rule, " there shall be thrown wide open the gates of
the kingdom of heaven." ^

From that which has been said, it will be seen
that the spirit which animates the whole legislation of
St. Benedict is altogether similar to the Spirit of Christ.
Now, what is that which the Divine Master requires
as the very foundation of the spiritual life ? Is it not
abandonment of and flight from that world, in which
He declares that He has no part, and for which He
would not pray, saying : " I am not of the world ; I
pray not for the world " ? Also, did He not wish that
His Apostles and all His followers should entertain
the same sentiments with respect to it ? Speaking to
them. He says : " I have chosen you out of the world ;
you are not of the world ;" and therefore He insisted
upon their giving up all the tastes, the affections, the
occupations, and the desires of the world, in order
that they might be able to live soberly, justly, and in
a godly manner here below, awaiting the blessed
hope and His own most glorious advent at the end
of time. This is precisely what St. Benedict teaches

^ This sentence is found at the end of many editions of the
Rule.

The Prologue to the Rule. 1 7

his followers to do. He wishes them to be foreign to
the affairs of the world ; to withdraw themselves
from it ; not to mix themselves up with its pursuits ;
not to take part in its politics ; not to be busied about
its aims ; not to adopt its views, its fashions, its
way of speaking and of acting. He desires, on the
contrary, that they should live apart from the world,
in solitude, in silence, in humility, in poverty, being
well aware that such is the Spirit of Christ, and that
he who is not animated with a like spirit is not one of
His, IS not a Religious, is not even a Christian, in the
true sense of the word.

The Prologue to the Rule opens with the
words :

Hearken, my Son. — St. Benedict reqiures us to
give to the teaching of the Rule the attention of our
bodily sense ; the attention of our intellect, " incline
the ear of thy heart ; " the affection of our will, " will-
ingly to hear ;'^ and the obedience of our perform-
ance, " effectually to accomplish!^

Master : Father.— By these terms, St. Benedict
does not designate himself, but the Holy Ghost ; or,
as some interpreters think, our Divine Lord.

Armour of Obedience. — In this virtue our
Holy Father wishes that the spirit of his Order should
consist ; for its scope is to lead back to God, by the
labour of obedience, those whom the sloth of dis-
obedience has caused to stray from the path of His
commandments.

Whatever good Work thou dost begin. — It
is God who gives the grace both to will and to accom-
plish. St. Benedict, who drew much of his monastic

C

i8 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

legislation from the teaching of Cassian, in this, and
in several other passages, guards his disciples against
the semi-Pelagian doctrine about divine grace, with
which that famous man was somewhat infected.

With wondering Ears. — To listen in this way
is to have the whole man so absorbed in attention, as
to be deaf to everything else.

Hath dashed them against the Rock
Christ. — This is to drive away evil thoughts by
the memory of the Passion and the death, the blood
and the wounds, of Christ.

Motives. — In this Prologue five motives are put
before us to induce us to undertake that spiritual life
which is set forth in the Rule, (i) The love of God for
us : " That He who hath now vouchsafed to reckon us
in the number of His children may not hereafter be
saddened by our evil deeds, .... nor disinherit us."
(2) The severity of God : " Lest as a dread Lord, He
may deliver us up to perpetual punishment ; . . . and,
if we desire to avoid the pains of hell, we must hasten
now to do that which will be expedient for us for ever
hereafter." (3) God's sweet invitation to us : " Come,
ye children, and hearken unto Me. What can be
sweeter than this voice of the Lord inviting us ?" (4)
The patience of God awaiting us, prolonging the days
of our life, that we may amend our evil deeds. (5)
The sweetness of the religious life, which, though diffi-
cult in the beginning, yet in process of time grows sweet
and easy.2

2 If the reader examine the Latin text of the Rule, he will
find that St. Benedict does not quote the Vulgate, but the old
Roman Psalter and Testament. This will account for the
differences which he will find between these quotations and
the text of the Vulgate.

CHAPTER I.

OF THE SEVERAL KINDS OF MONKS.

Because St. Benedict is called the Father of Western
Monachism, it must not be supposed that he is the
parent of it in such a way as that there never were
any Monks previously to his time. The most cursory
reading of his life and of his Rule will at once dispel
any such notion. It was from a Monk that he received
the monastic habit and that he was supplied with
food, during the first period, when he led a hermit's
life in the cave at Subiaco ; it was at the request of a
community of Monks that he unwillingly abandoned
his beloved retreat in order to govern the monastery
in which they dwelt ; it was to escape their resent-
ment, and their evil designs against his life, that he
returned to his cave, and that he there began to
gather round him the men who had fled from the con-
tamination of a corrupt age, in order to be instructed
in the ways of God. All that is meant by calling him
the Father of Western Monachism is that his Rule so
speedily superseded well-nigh all other enactments
and methods of Monasticism, as to be almost univer-
sally adopted and employed everywhere in the West
as the instrument for forming into Monks those who
sought to lead a life of perfection.

Cenobites. — As there were many Monks and
many monasteries in existence when St. Benedict

20 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

began to write his Rule, it is but natural that he
should first say something about the kind of men for
whom it was his intention to legislate. According to
him, Monks may be divided into four classes, or rather
the Monks of whom he had familiar experience may
be so divided. First, there are those whom he calls
Cenobites, and who, in his opinion, are the best and
most perfect kind of Monks. These are they who live
together in community, with a fixed Rule, according to
which they are willing to abide, under the guidance
of a Superior, who is vested with authority to admin--
ister that legislation to which they have chosen to
submit themselves.

Anchorets. — The second are Anchorets or Her-
mits. These, as their name implies, are those who
have gone apart from the fellowship of men, to lead a
solitary life. These hermits are of two kinds : firsts
those who undertake this life without having any
previous training in monastic discipline, and without
passing through any intermediate state ; secondly^
those who, after being first tried in all the obedience
and the stern asceticism of monastic life, then go forth
with the permission and with the counsel of their
Superiors, to live, indeed, alone, but still to remain
under the government of the monastery whence they
came. To undertake the eremitical mode of life with-
out any previous training is a matter full of deadly
peril, unless a person is invited to do so by a special
vocation from God. Then it is expected that He who
has given the call will likewise bestow all the graces
which are necessary to shun the dangers and to over-
come the difficulties which beset a life of solitude. It

Of the sevo^al kinds of Monks, 2 1

is evident, from the Rule, that our Holy Father con-
siders that the solitary life is prudently undertaken
only by those who enter upon it after a long trial of a
life spent in fellowship with others, whose example has
imparted strength and courage, and that spiritual
science which, with 'the aid of God's grace, enables
them to engage in single combat with the enemies of
their souls.

Sarabites. — In the third class St. Benedict places
those who resemble Cenobites, in that they live
together in twos or in threes, and form a sort of com-
munity, but differ from them in that they have neither
a Rule upon which to shape their lives, nor a Superior
to guide them in the path of obedience. Their only
law is the pleasure of their unruly desires ; and their
standard of right and of wrong is their own per-
verse will. These false Religious, who had nothing
of the Monk save the tonsure and the habit, were
called by their contemporaries Sarabites^ a word of
Egyptian origin, signifying a rebellious, disobedient
Religious ; one who has not been moulded into the
fashion of religious life by the influence of the Rule,
nor tried by the sage experience of a skilful master ;
who is full of the base alloy of his unregenerate nature ;
soft as lead to take the impress of all that is evil ; a
living contradiction, wearing the trappings of those
who have renounced the world, but in affection and
in act cleaving to it with a tenacity engendered by
inveterate habit.

Gyrovagi. — The fourth class of Monks were
called Gyrovagi^ from the fact that they had no fixed
abode, but wandered about from one province to

22 The Teachmg of St. Benedict.

another, from one monastery to its neighbour, seeking
for and obtaining hospitality from men who were
either too simple to discredit their stories or too
charitable to suspect them of hypocrisy. These were
a species of monastic " tramps " or vagabonds, who, if
we may judge of their character* from that which is
recorded of them in monastic writings, had all the
effrontery, all the disinclination to work, all the rest--
less, roving disposition of their modern representa-
tives, only masked under the pretence of a search
after a perfect way of life. Their method of proceed-
ing was to come to a monastery as pilgrims, or as
men who were out on some errand, from a distant
community, or who were bent on reaching some far-
off fraternity, whose rigorous mode of life was just the
very object towards which all their aspirations tended.
In the mean time, being received as guests, they were
treated with all courtesy and civility. Their feet
were washed ; they were lodged in the guest-house ;
an excellent meal was prepared for their refreshment ;
and they were not expected to subject themselves to
the rigour of the Rule with respect to rising for
Matins, manual labour, silence, and the like. After
a few days they took their departure, and went through
the same piece of deception at the next monastery.
Some of these vagabonds made such a profession of
this scandalous mode of life, that they furnished them-
selves with all the appurtenances with which it might
be pursued with the greatest ease to themselves. They
procured two stout saddle-bags, and an ass to carry
them. Then, staff in hand, and clad in the monastic
garb, they set forth upon their journey. On arriving

Of the several kinds of Mo7iks. 23

at a monastery, they begged to be led straightway to
the church, in order to go through the prayers which
were usually said before admitting guests into the
enclosure. They asked for a draught of wdne to
fortify themselves after the fatigues of the journey;
they diligently inquired the distance to the next
monastery, and the best route which led thither ; if
asked whether they wished to be called with the rest
of the Monks for the Matin office, they pleaded either
ill-health or fatigue to exempt themselves from this
duty ; if the Community happened to be keeping fast,
they begged leave to be excused from this, for the
same reason ; and then only did they take their
departure when their keen eyes detected the slacken-
ing fervour of their kind hosts, who, scandalised at
.their behaviour, endeavoured by this means to hint
that their presence was no longer pleasing to the
brotherhood, who by the laws of their Institute were
obliged to receive, as if they were Christ Himself, all
strangers who came to them.

St. Benedict's Aim. — Bad as the Sarabites were
in the eyes of St. Benedict, he considered that the
Gyrovagi were, in all respects, even worse. Therefore,
deeming all legislation for their reform to be useless,
he turned his attention to the Cenobites, who are, in
his opinion, the most steadfast kind of Monks. His
aim was to put an end to the wandering habits of the
Gyrovagi, to the licentious lives of the Sarabites, and
to the independence of the Hermits. Therefore, in
the Rule which he wrote, he established a life in
common, and an enclosure, beyond which Monks were
not suffered to pass without the leave of the Abbot,

24 The Teaching of St, Benedict.

and for some reason which would meet with his bless-
ing and approval. This put an effective stop to the
business of the Gyrovagi, and monastic tramps soon
disappeared from the roads, and ceased to be met
with in the guest-halls of the great monasteries. In
the next place, he bound by vow all who embraced
his Institute continually to labour at the amendment
of their manners, and thus gave a death-blow to the
Sarabites, who did whatever seemed best to their own
wills, making evil good and good evil. Lastly, he
made obedience to a Rule, and to the commands of a
Superior, the very essence of monastic life, and thus
drew a sharp line of demarcation between his children
and all those who by leading an eremitical life were
far removed from and beyond the reach of any one
who might guide and exercise them in the paths of
obedience.

Sarabites and Gyrovagi in Spirit.— Never-
theless, those who live under the mild legislation of
his Rule, and bow their necks beneath the yoke of
obedience, must not suppose that they are beyond the
reach of that perverse spirit which animated the lives
of the Sarabites and of the Gyrovagi. It is quite
within the range of possibility that a man should be
living under the sway of an Abbot, and be bound by
all the enactments of a Rule, and yet in heart be both
a Sarabite and a Gyrovagus. Are there not Religious
who desire to be from under the sway of an Abbot or
Superior, and to be rid of all the hampering trammels
of a Rule ? Are there not Religious who, though
they have given up the world, cleave to it by their
imperfect lives, inasmuch as they are given up to

What ma7iner of Man the Abbot ought to be. 25

pride, to vainglory, to itching curiosity, and to love
of good cheer ? How many are there who, under one
pretext or another, manage to be out of their monas-
teries, and to flit from place to place, ostensibly on
the plea of business, and with the will of their Supe-
rior, but in reality on business of their own creating
and seeking, and with the will of their Superior, whom
they have constrained to make his will their own ?
Men of this stamp, though living in a monastery, and
under the sway of a Superior, are filled with the
Sarabite's self-will, with the tramping spirit of the
Gyrovagus, and are not of the number of those stead-
fast cenobitical men — except, indeed, in name — for
whom St. Benedict says that he intends to write his
Rule.l

CHAPTER II.
WHAT MANNER OF MAN THE ABBOT OUGHT TO BE.

Father. — After describing for us the various
kinds of Monks who peopled the monastic world of
his own day, and pointing out to us that class of them
which he considered to be the most deserving of praise
and of imitation, our Holy Father next proceeds to
treat of the character of him who, in his estimation,

1 A Monk may, through necessity or through titility, reside
beyond the enclosure of his monastery, and not only not incur
any blame, but, in some instances, gain by the change. Thus,
if he were promoted to a benefice, having attached to it the
**care of souls," he would superadd to the state of perfection,
in which he already lives as a Religious, the dignity of the
sacerdotal office. — St. Thomas, ii, 2, art. viii.

26 The Teachmg of St. Benedict.

is worthy to be appointed ruler over these Cenobites
whom he calls "the most steadfast class of Monks/'
The title which he gives to him expresses, in a com-
pendious sort of way, all that he would have him to
be. He gives to him the name " Abbot," or father,
and sets him at the head of the monastic community
as another Christ. Therefore, he would have him
unite in his person the threefold office of father,
teacher, and governor : father, to love them ; teacher,
to instruct them ; and governor, to rule, and guide
them. Under these heads is contained all the instruc-
tion which St. Benedict offers to Superiors. He
sketches for them only the grand outlines of what
their conduct should be with respect to their subjects,
leaving the multitude of details to be filled in by them
as circumstances shall require. Yet, within these few
outlines, all those who hold sway over men will find
principles of conduct, which, if acted upon, will guide
them with unerring wisdom in the difficult task of
government, and enable them to use with modera-
tion that power which is intrusted to them, " not unto
destruction, but unto edification."

Equal Love. — Preeminently, then, the Abbot or
Superior who is intrusted with the government of men,
and particularly if this government is a spiritual one,
must show in his own person all the qualitiesof a father.
For the power which is put into his hands, like all
power, comes from God ; and he himself is set up in
the midst of those who are subjected to his sway, to
represent to them the person of Christ. As, therefore,
he wields a power which comes to him from God, and
holds, with respect to his subjects, the place of Christ,

What manner of Man the Abbot ought to be. 27

he is bound in his conduct to behave towards them as
our Divine Lord would behave, and to use the au-
thority with which he is invested in the same way in
which it would be used by Jesus Christ. From this
it will follow that he must love them with a love simi-
lar in its nature to the love with which God loves us.
Now, God loves mankind in two ways. In the first
place, they are His creatures, the work of His almighty
hands. He fashioned their bodies with wondrous
cunning, making them the masterpieces of His crea-
tion, in beauty of form, in symmetry of proportion^
in the right adjustment of all parts. Into them He
breathed a living image of Himself, bearing upon its
every feature the impress of the Divinity. He digni-
fied them with the position of children, and took upon
Himself, with respect to them, the title " Father/
He destined them to an eternity of happiness, in the
full enjoyment of the Beatific Vision, having made
them "only a little less than the angelic natures'"
which minister round His throne. Therefore, because
men are the creation of God's hands, bear upon their
souls the impress of His divine nature, and are
destined by Him for the enjoyment of eternal happi-
ness, His love for them is equal. In consequence of
these conditions in which He has been pleased to
create man, He loves the lowly, the ignorant, the
deformed, with a love just as great as is that with
which He loves those who are noble, those who are
learned, and those who are graced with that beauty
which makes captive our impressionable hearts. Nay^
when looked at in these respects, even the wicked,
who have broken His yoke and cast it from their

28 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

shoulders, are loved with an affection equal to that
which He metes out unto the just, who keep His
ordinances and walk in His ways.

Love proportioned to Merit. — But besides
this way in which God loves men, there is another in
which His affection is poured out upon them for other
reasons besides those of creation, of bearing His
image, and of being destined to eternal happiness.
In this second way the love which God bestows
upon men is not equal with respect to each individual ;
it differs both in measure and in degree of intensity,
because it is awarded as a crown of merit ; and as
the merit acquired by each, through the aid of divine
grace, is not equal, the love with which it is rewarded
cannot be equal. Thus it is that God loves with a closer,
a more intimate, a fonder affection, him who is treading
the paths of justice, than He does the man who has
wandered out of the strait way, and is hurrying along
the broad, smooth, beaten track which leads to de-
struction. He treats with more special care, and tends
with more signal tokens of affection, one who is in a
high degree of perfection, than He vouchsafes to
bestow upon one who is in a less eminent degree. In
a word. His love for men is proportioned to their merit.

If, then, the Superior holds the place of Christ
with respect to his subjects, and if he is bound to
love them in the same way in which Christ loves us,
the love of the Superior must be like that which God
bears unto men. It must, like God's love, in the first
place, be given equally to all : " Let there be no dis-
tinction of persons in the monastery. Let not one
be loved more than another." For each of the

What manner of Man the Abbot ought to be, 29

Superior's subjects stands towards him in the relation
of child, and he towards each in the relation of father.
Therefore, in this respect, the claim of all upon his
love is equal. Moreover, they are equally God's
children; they bear in their souls the image of the
Divine Nature, and look forward with an equal right
to the inheritance of eternal life ; consequently, they
are in these respects entitled to receive from him the
same measure of affectionate regard and fatherly
solicitude. But although bound to pay to them this
debt of paternal love, it is not required that he should
feel its constraining influence in his inferior or sensi-
tive nature. All that is looked for is that he should
foster it in his superior or rational will, for that will
suffice to move him to perform in their regard all
those offices which their mutual relation demands.
But if, in addition to the possession of this love in his
superior will, he can have it also in his inferior nature^,
it will be all the better both for himself and for those
who are under his charge, inasmuch as all the duties
which flow from his love will be performed with greater
ease by him, and be rendered more acceptable to those
in whose behalf they are performed.

It is evident, therefore, that St. Benedict by this
precept opens for Superiors the true fount whence an
equal stream of love may flow unto all their subjects,,
and seals up those other sources from which worldly-
minded men draw more copious draughts to bestow
upon those who are not entitled to this richer outpour^
ing of affection. Hence he will not suffer any Abbot
or Superior to give more special marks of love to those-
of his subjects who may chance to have been nobly

jO The Teaching of St. Benedict.

born than he bestows upon those who have sprung
from the mass of the people. He must not, for this
reason only, advance them to high offices, nor to
positions of trust,* in the monastery. He must not
allow himself to be swayed in his affection by beauty
of form, nor by culture of manner, nor by the glitter
of those merely accidental qualities, which have so
great influence with men of the world. The reason
which he gives is that noble birth, cultured manners,
superior intelligence, and corporeal beauty have no
weight with Christ, before Whom we are all one, and
in Whose service we all bear an equal burden of
duty ; with Whom, consequently, there is " no accept-
ing of persons." Nevertheless, while urging Superiors
equally to love all their subjects, and insisting upon
their not making any distinction in the love which
they give to them, our Holy Father does not pro-
hibit them from loving one of their subjects with
more affection than they give to the rest, provided
that there is a sufficient reason for so doing. That
reason must be the same in its nature as is that
for which God loves some men with more intensity
and with a more copious measure of affection than
He deigns to bestow upon others.

Now, as God loves those who are more virtuous in
exact proportion to their merits, so also may a Supe-
rior, for the same reason, love one of his subjects more
than another, " if in good works and in obedience he
be found to surpass the rest." Also, he may advance
to positions of honour and of trust those among them
Avho are more intelligent and better fitted by their
capacity to fill such offices, even though they are young

What manner of Man the Abbot otcgJit to be, 31

and only recently converted to religious life. But
their promotion must not be the result of mere
affection. Their title to honour and to trust must
rest upon the possession of ability to be of use to the
monastery and to their brethren ; so that St .Benedict,
while strictly prohibiting all favouritism and mere
natural affection springing from motives which are
unworthy of Religious, does not interdict that special
and particular love which is due to the more virtuous.
If the Superior will but remember what he is, and by
what title he is called, and that in the monastery he
holds the place of Christ, he will equally love all
his subjects as being the children of God ; he will
show more affection only to those who are worthy of
it, because of their superior virtue ; he will advance to
offices of trust the nobly born, the well-favoured, the
polished, only for some reasonable cause, and not for
merely adventitious excellences ; like Christ, his great
model, he will study not to be an accepter of persons,
and will, therefore, bear an equal love to all, subjecting
them to the same orders and to the same discipline,
in accordance with their deserts.

He must teach first by Example. — The
office of Father of the community over which he rules
entails many other duties upon the Abbot or Superior,
such as providing for their maintenance and for their
education, just as the head of a family does with re-
spect to the household which is dependent upon him.
Of the material maintenance which he is obliged to
provide for them we need say nothing. In speaking of
their intellectual education, we will confine ourselves to
that portion of it which pertains to their advancement

32 ' The Teaching of St. Benedict.

in the science of the Saints. At this he is obliged to
labour with all the earnestness of which he is capable.
In this matter our Divine Lord must serve as a model
to the Superior, who occupies His place ; and the
method of teaching which our Lord employed must be
copied by him in its minutest details. Christ, as teacher,
first set the example in His own person of all the great
moral precepts which He wished to impress on the
souls of His hearers, and then taught them by word
of mouth with a simplicity and an earnestness which
made the people exclaim : " Never did man speak as
this Man does !" So also must every Superior act, who
wishes conscientiously to satisfy his obligation of edu-
cating his subjects : he must first do and then teach ;
that is to say, " he must show them all virtue and
sanctity by deeds more than by words," and first by
deeds. For we are so constituted by nature that those
things which strike our senses, which we see with our
eyes, and hear with our ears, and touch with our hands,
make a deeper impression on us than do those which
we can reach only by means of our intellectual facul-
ties. We grasp them at once, almost without an efforts
It is for this reason that those who wish to teach, or
to persuade, or to encourage others to act, invariably
first put before their eyes an example, which makes
it easy for those to whom they address themselves to
understand the lesson, or to accept the reasoning, or
to perform the act which is put before them. When a
professor has a mathematical problem to explain to-
his scholars, he does not waste either his own energies
or their time in vain attempts to impress it upon their
brain by words only ; he takes up his chalk and draws

What mminer of Man the Abbot oiLght to be. 33

t'he figure on his blackboard, and with that to catch
their eyes, he easily conveys the elucidation of it to
minds which, without that, would struggle in vain to
understand his terms and his technical explanations.
A captain on the field of battle does not confine him-
self to mere words of command and to exhortations
to be courageous ; he goes before, he leads his men
whither he would have them to go, and does for them
that which he wishes them to do. Such, also, must
be the conduct of him who would impart to his subjects
the precepts of the divine law. The mantle of author-
ity will sit but ill upon his shoulders if he cannot do
this, and his words will fall upon a soil whence they
will be speedily swept away by the winds of human
passion. Consequently, whatever light there is in a
man must be made to shine forth in such a way as
that others may see it, and by its brilliancy be guided
to walk whither it points the way. But feeble and
uncertain will that light be, unless it be reflected by
the powerful background of personal example. This
will focus its rays with tenfold power upon their
minds and upon their senses, even if they chance to
be of the number of those who are sitting in the
shadow of deadly sin, willing captives of the world's
enthralling pleasures. St. Paul was so keenly alive to
the necessity for this irresistible force in a teacher that,
when writing to his disciple Titus, whom he had left
among the Cretans, he said to him : " In all things
show thyself an example of good works." ^ To do
this was peculiarly necessary in his case, inasmuch as
those with whom he had to deal were proverbially

2 Titus ii. 7.

D

34 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

deceitful, rebellious, stubborn, and intractable. In
fact, so much so, that one of their own poets had
written of them : " Always liars and beasts are the
Cretans, and inwardly sluggish." ^ Wherefore he was
told by St. Paul sharply to rebuke them, and there-
fore there was all the more need on his part of a
blameless, irreproachable life, which would shine before
their eyes as a guiding light to the paths of holiness
and of justice.

In the same way Superiors must first stand before
their subjects as the models of all that they wish to
teach them. Like the good shepherd of whom our
Lord speaks in the Gospel, they must go before them
in the exercise of every good work. If they w^ish them
to be silent, punctual, attentive to choir duties, hum-
ble, patient, charitable, all these qualities must shine
forth in their own daily lives, so that all may see these
virtuous actions glittering like so many jewels in their
vesture of office. If they do not see in them these
virtues, or if they be able to mark their absence, it
will be vain for a Superior to speak with earnestness
and with eloquence of the advantages of silence, of
the necessity for punctuality, of the heavenly joys of
being privileged to sing in choir like the angels of
God, of the urgency with which our Lord and St.
Benedict insist upon humility, of their exhortation to
patience in suffering, of the inutility of all virtue with-
out charity : all this will fall upon minds whose only
response will be, "Physician, heal thyself; first do,
and then teach us, and we will listen to and carry out
thy precepts." Only those Superiors can teach with

2 Epimenedes, who lived in the sixth century B.C.

What manner of Man the Abbot ozcght to be. 35

efficiency who, like St. Paul, are able to say to their
subjects, " Be ye followers of me, as I also am of
Christ ;''^ for " what manner of man the ruler of the city
is, such also are they that dwell therein."^

Secondly, by Word of Mouth. — But when
a Superior has displayed in his. own conduct before
his subjects all the virtues which he wishes them to
practise, he has not accomplished his whole duty.
Another important part of it yet remains to be done
This is to teach by word of mouth those high moral
principles from which all good, exemplary conduct
springs. For the precept which the Apostle gives to
those who hold the episcopal office,^ which precept
the Council of Trent"^ tells us appHes to all ecclesias-
tical prelates, is twofold in its injunction : in the first
place, it orders them to look well to their own lives
to see that they are holy and exemplary ; and in the
next place, it bids them apply to learning, that they
may impart unto others the knowledge of the truth.
This latter obligation is a personal one, from which
they are released only by some legitimate hindrance ;
and when any such impediment intervenes, they are
bound to satisfy their obligation by calling in some
one to accomplish this duty for them. Now, if Abbots
and regular Superiors exercise over their subjects
a quasi-episcopal jurisdiction, we may legitimately
infer that there is upon them a very serious obliga-
tion of acting towards these subjects as prelates are
bound to act towards their flocks ; that is to say, to
break to them the bread of the word, either personally

^ I Cor. iv. 16. ^ Eccles. x. 2.

^ I Tim. iv. 16. ^ Sess. ii. De Refor. cap. ii.

36 The Teaching of St, Benedict.

or by means of others. Hence a Superior must
instruct his community not by example only, but by
word of mouth also ; he must not only do, but also
teach ; and to him as well as to Bishops applies that
command of the prince of preachers, " to preach the
word," and to be so earnest in the dissemination of it
as to do this " both in season and out of season.''®

He is set over them for this very purpose. He
is the first among them in order to be a teacher to
the rest. He is set on an eminence in order to give
forth light, by which others may guide their steps.
Therefore he must not hide whatever of Hght there
may be in him, but must make it to shine before men.
Upon him, as upon the Apostle, there is a necessity
to preach the Gospel to his subjects, and woe unto
him if he yields not to that constraining influence !
That zealous lover of Jesus Christ was bold enough
to bid men look upon himself and imitate him, inas-
much as, being a counterpart of the Divine Master,
they would thereby be imitating the Lord Himself.
Therefore let Superiors, with respect to this duty of
teaching their subjects " how they ought to walk and
to please God," fasten their eyes upon St. Paul and
attentively consider him. Arriving at Miletus, he
summons the elders of the Church of Ephesus, and
addresses to them those farewell words which drew
tears from the eyes that were never again, in this world,
to look upon his face. Of what do these words tell
us ? Of his indefatigable zeal in preaching the word
of God. He could say to them, " I have kept back
nothing that was profitable to you, but have preached

^ 2 Tim. iv. 2.

What mamier of Man the Abbot ought to be. 37

to you, and taught you publicly, and from house to
house. ... I fear nothing, provided only that I con-
summate the ministry of the word which I received
from the Lord Jesus, to testify the Gospel of the

grace of God I have not spared to declare unto

you all the course of God. . . . For three years I ceased
not, with tears, to admonish every one of you night
and day."^ It is to this model that our Holy Father
bids all Superiors turn their eyes. What a glory, what
a consolation will it be for one who has held this
difficult post to be able to use such words at the end
of his career, when the time has come for him to
appear before Christ, Whose place he has held ! If,
like that great Master, he himself have first done that
which he had to teach, and then failed not, with all
diligence, to instruct the flock intrusted to him, he
will be able to say, " I have fought the good fight, I
have finished my course, I have kept the faith."^^

He must know his Subjects — Besides being
father and teacher of the community which is put
under his jurisdiction, a Superior is also a governor,
or ruler, of those at the head of whom he is set. But,
as St. Benedict takes care to tell him, he is a ruler or
governor of souls, from which circumstance the man-
ner of his government must differ widely from that of
men who hold the reins of a merely civil authority.
He cannot govern a community as a magistrate
governs a city, nor as a general rules an army, nor as
the captain of a vessel rules those who, under his
direction, sail the ship. These men have little else
to do than to administer a law which all have to obey.

^ Acts XX. 20, 24, 27, 31. ^^2 Tim. iv. 7.

38 The Teachi7ig of St. Benedict.

They have to apply it equitably, evenly, impartially
to all, and to see that it is observed in the same way
by all without exception. Far more difficult is the
task of him who has to rule over souls. They belong
to the great Master of all. They are intrusted to the
care of Superiors by that Master in order to be edu-
cated for heaven, to be healed of vices and of defects,
to be imbued with habits of virtue. Therefore they
need a particular, an individual care, which calls for
a different treatment in the case of well-nigh each
individual. Consequently, the first duty of him who
is appointed to govern them is to make himself
most intimately acquainted with them, and with all
their special needs. They are his flock, and, if he
is worthy the name of "shepherd," he must know
them.

" I know Mine,'' says the great Governor of souls,
" and Mine know Me." By knowing them, we mean
that he must understand their different characters.
What a task is this ! What penetration does it not
require ! What an amount of patient, large-hearted
observation ! unwarped by any narrow, preconceived
notions ; elastic, expansive, far-reaching, considerate,
loving. No matter how small any community may
be, there is not in it any one character which is
exactly like unto another. One will be quick and
intelligent, another dull and slow of comprehension ;
one mild, another fiery and irascible ; one patient,
another intolerant of control ; one tractable and
easily led, another stubborn and obstinate in adhering
to his own will. Therefore, if the Superior's aim is
intelligently to rule these widely different elements

What manner of Man the Abbot ought to be. 39

which constitute his flock or community, and his
desire to make them coalesce into a compact body,
the various members of which will be in harmonious
working order with one another, he must be at the
pains to study the nature of their different characters,
and on the watch to mark the ever-varying modifica-
tions to which these are subject. He must make it
his business to observe the natural bent of each ; to
ascertain his abilities, mental as well as moral ; to
estimate the weight which his shoulders are able to
bear ; in one word, to know by heart his whole intel-
lectual and moral build. For a man who has fully
grasped all these details will never satisfy himself by
applying the Rule, in a wooden sort of way, to all
indiscriminately. He will know that the same mode
of treatment will not equally well suit all kinds of
characters. Their mental powers are of different
calibre ; their moral powers will not bear the same
strain ; what one will endure without a murmur,
another will sink under, utterly crushed, as if beneath
a mountain of lead ; and while one will see at a glance
the propriety, the reasonableness, and the utility of any
law which he is called upon to observe, another will
be stone blind to every other consideration, except to
the fact that it is a hampering restraint upon his indi-
vidual liberty, for which there is no reason whatever,
except the whim of the Superior, who is gratified by
the childish exercise of despotic power. He will
know that, just as the same garments will not fit all
men alike, so the same government will not adapt
itself to all characters alike. He will see that, if even
horses cannot be driven all in the same manner — some

40 The Teaching of St, Benedict.

needing neither spur nor whip, while others will not
stir without a vigorous application both of the one:
and of the other — with much greater reason is it
impossible to govern men by one and the same
method. Therefore he will be careful to study the
character of those whom it is his duty to lead unto-
God, and, in accordance with the individualities of
that character, so to apply to them the governing
power of the law as to direct their steps to the king-
dom of heaven.

Therefore every Superior must endeavour to know
thoroughly well all who are intrusted to his guiding
care ; and, knowing them, so to adapt himself and
his government to the character and to the intelligence
of each, as not only not to suffer any loss in the flock
committed to him, but to have cause ever to rejoice
in the increase and the well-being of one that is full
of virtue. If he do this, he will speedily discover that
some are more easily induced by fair speeches to tread
in the path of obedience, than by the most stern and
peremptory commands ; that others, again, need the
spur and the whip of a sharp reprehension before they
can be corrected of their faults ; while, by the gentle
warmth of persuasion, others are melted who would
be hard and immovable " as ribbed ice" against the
brief, sharp word of command, in which those vested
with authority but too often convey their orders. He
will consequently be careful to imitate the wisdom of
the Apostle, who, in dealing with offenders against the
law, first reasoned with them, in order to enlighten
them about their duty; then, with all charity, entreated
them to perform it; and finally had recourse to repre-

What manner of Man the Abbot ought to be, 41

hension only when all other measures had failed. ^^
If he must needs threaten, he will mingle fair words
with those which he is obliged to use in order to in-
spire fear ; he will study to combine the severity of a
master with the loving affection of a father. Thus his
fatherly kindness will win the affection and the coa-
fidence of the mild, the obedient, and the patient ;
while his magisterial dignity and firmness will beat
down the opposition of the disorderly, the restless, and
the stubborn. To act thus is, of course, a matter of
considerable difficulty. It needs much patience, much
self-repression, much study. One has to use discretion
and discernment, to take trouble, to put oneself to
inconvenience. It is far easier to mete out the same
measure of government to all, to lay the yoke on
every neck, no matter whether it fits or does not ; to<
force all, without exception, to fight in the armour
of Saul, and all to bear the same burden. For this
kind of policy, men are sometimes highly commended
by the undiscerning, and acquire a reputation for being
strict disciplinarians. But what is the truth ? They
have not the capacity to govern, in the true sense of
that word. A drill-sergeant would do that which they
do, and would do it with far more efficiency. The fact
of the matter is that, being unable to govern, they
screen their incompetency behind this species of me-
chanical military discipline — we might almost call it
despotism — and instead of endeavouring to learn this
"art of arts, the government of souls," give themselves
up wholly to the care of worldly matters, which would
be far better and more efficiently managed by other

' ^1 2 Tim. iv. 2.

42 The Teaching of Si. Benedict.

hands. Therefore St. Benedict warns all Superiors that
they have undertaken the care of souls, that they will
have to account for them ; and he closes their mouths
and prevents them from making excuses by telling
them to seek first the kingdom of God and His justice,
and that then all things else will be given to them.

Power to inspire Love.— Therefore, to have
this intimate knowledge of those whom he has to rule
is most necessary for one who has to hold sway over
others. Yet the possession of this knowledge, un-
accompanied by another very important quality, will
leave him practically without influence among those
over whom he is appointed to be ruler.

This quality is the power to make himself loved.
Men are not led by their reason only : their sentiments
and their feelings have far more to do with their
actions than they would, perhaps, be ready to acknow-
ledge. Therefore he who is able to captivate these —
that is to say, he who is able to win their love — will lead
them whithersoever he pleases. Without this power
he may be able to convince their intelligences, but he
will not succeed in persuading their wills. The}^ will
understand and assent, but they will not act. How-
ever, let him but make himself master of their love,
and the key to their hearts is in his possession, the
lever wherewith to move their wills is in his grasp.
They will find nothing hard, nothing unjust, nothing
beyond the power of their strength, even in that
which is in itself arduous. The spring which moves
to action has been discovered ; he who is master of
that has all the mechanism of human actions under
his control.

What manner of Man the Abbot ought to be. 43

Means to acquire this Power.— It is scarcely
necessary, therefore, to point out the importance of
studying how to get possession of this ; but it may
be useful to indicate how it may be most easily done.
The most obvious and the most speedy method for
winning the love of others is, first, to love them : for
love begets love. But besides this, the Superior or
governor of a community must study to have those
qualities which command the love of others. These
are summed up in that brief prayer which David
offered to God, when he asked Him to give him " good-
ness, and discipline, and knowledge."!^ gy the term
*' goodness," we do not mean simply the Superior's
personal virtue, which might be of a lustre so bright
as even to dazzle the eyes and to compel the admira-
tion of men, and yet not be able to attract, to draw
them to him, with the cords of Adam. To our mind
it embraces a wider range of qualities, and is in its
nature multiform, many-sided. It implies that he
upon whom God has bestowed it has received so
copious an outpouring from the divine treasure-house,
as to resemble, in a certain sense, God Himself,
Whose very nature is goodness. He possesses that
calm, mental placidity which does not permit itself
to be ruffled by every breath which chances to play
upon it. He has the meekness which is very slow to
take offence. He has the patience to bear with the
faults, the imperfections, and the sins of those who
are under him. He has the modesty which seeks to
hide from men the possession of great talent, the
affability which invites them to draw nigh to him,

12 ps. cxviii. (i(}.

44 ^/^^ Teaching of St, Benedict.

the kindness which invariably engenders confidence.
In addition to this, he must have that discipline which
we take to mean self-control, or ability to repress all
outbursts of passion, and to hide the motions of them
even when they are actually felt. This self-mastery
gives to him that reserve of power, that strength of
character which impresses others, and makes them
feel that they are in the presence of a master whose
will must be obeyed. It is a kind of invisible force^
pushing and constraining the wills of those over whom
he presides, speaking to them in the glance of his eye,
in the tone of his voice, and in the very carriage of
his body. It is the iron hand cased in a velvet glove,
which to the touch is all softness and delicacy, but in
which there slumbers a strength which is irresistible.
Besides these qualities of goodness and of discipline,
the Superior who wishes to win the love of his
subjects must have knowledge. By this we do not
mean mere book-learning, but that grasp of mind
which is able to meet a difficulty ; to use the powers
of reason to unravel the tangled skein of conflicting
evidence ; to distinguish the right from the wrong,,
and to point it out to others in a few, clear, forcible
words.

It would, perhaps, be more correct to call this
knowledge '' scientia'' — that judicial frame of mind
which abounds with penetrating, clear, sound common
sense, going straight to the kernel of the matter, and
plucking it out of the encircling rind of misrepresenta-
tion, of exaggeration, and perhaps of downright false-
hood, with which most debatable questions are sure
to be enveloped. He who is so fortunate as to be

What manner of Man the Abbot ought to be, 45

possessed of these three quahties cannot fail to win
the love of his subjects. For his self-control and his
knowledge will assert their empire over all intelli-
gences, and his goodness will lead captive all hearts.
Thus the whole man will be in a submissive frame of
mind, and " ready at the hearing of the ear '' to carry
into effect the slightest indication of his wishes. His
intimate knowledge of their abilities, of their weak-
nesses, of their difficulties, of their passions ; his
fatherly love of them all individually ; and the ever-
present memory of the dread judgment to come,
which St. Benedict keeps steadily burning like a bril-
liant lamp before his mind, will enable him to hold
the reins of government in a spirit similar to that with
which his divine model, Jesus Christ, would hold them.
There will be in his rule an absence of all haughtiness
and of all domineering spirit. Although the elder
among his brethren, he will be as one of the younger ;
although the leader, he will be as one that serveth.
He will obey St. Peter's injunction, and feed his flock
without lording it over them ; he will follow St.
Benedict's advice, and study to be loved by them,
rather than to be feared. Thus, by aiming to be a
father to his subjects, he will without difficulty be
their guide and their ruler also. They, on their side,
will gladly follow him; they will yield a prompt and
cheerful obedience to all his mandates ; they will
strive to carry into effect even that which they con-
ceive to be his desire.

46 The Teaching of St. Benedict,

CHAPTER III.

OF CALLING THE BRETHREN TO COUNCIL.

In the preceding chapters St. Benedict has told us
what manner of Monks those are for whom he intends
to legislate, and has sketched for us, in a few bold
strokes, the character of him whom he deems worthy
to rule over them. In the present chapter he treats
of one of the great helps to a wise and prudent govern-
ment— that is to say, the admission of those who are
governed to a consulting voice in all affairs of any
moment which concern the interests and the well-
being of the community at large. Whenever anything
of this nature occurs, he bids the Abbot take into his
confidence those who are under his sway, . and seek
from them advice as to the best means for conducting
himself with that prudent foresight which becomes
one who is thought to rule in the person of Christ.
Thus, while putting absolute power into his hands, he
wisely endeavours to surround it with those safe-
guards which effectually confine it within due limits ;
and once again threatens him who has to wield this
power with the dread and most rigorous judgment of
God, if he should ever dare, by a tyrannical use of it,
to turn it into an implement of destruction. In this
wise enactment of the Rule we see the germ of re-
presentative government ; for it is his wish that on
certain occasions, when matters of the gravest moment
call for the Abbot's attention, the advice of all should
be asked ; in matters of less importance that only the

Calling the Brethren to CoicnciL 47

elders should be consulted ; while in matters of ordi-
nary occurrence it is his desire that the Abbot should
be left to the guidance of that ripe judgment which
is to be looked for in one who has been chosen to
preside over his brethren. Here, in miniature, we
have the kingly power, aided in its task of govern-
ment by a few of the wisest of its subjects, who may
be said to represent the wishes and the aspirations of
the great mass of the people.

Weighty Matters. — But we may ask, what are
those matters which would be considered to be of so
great importance as to call for the advice of the zvhole
community? There, can be no doubt that, first
among these, we may reckon the election of an Abbot
or head of a community, no matter by what name he
may be called. For it is but natural that those who
are about to place themselves under the absolute
control of any ruler should have a voice in the elec-
tion of him. As a matter of course, their wishes in
this respect must be ascertained by him or by those
who, for the time being, hold the chief power in their
hands. In our congregation, however, the supreme
head is elected only by the members of the general
chapter. But in each monastery the Prior is elected,
not by the suffrages of all who may at the time chance
to be members of it, but only of those who are in
holy orders.^ These matters are not, in the present
age, left to the legislation of the founders, but are
regulated by the Church's common law, which has
brought the various enactments of these holy men

1 This is not a decisive, but only a consultive, vote. The
Definitors are the electors properly so called.

48 The Teaching of St, Benedict.

into conformity with her wise and maternal discipline.
The reception of novices to probation is another of
the grave matters in which all members of a reli-
gious community have a voice. Again, when these
novices have gone through the year which is prescribed
for their trial, the question of their admission to take
the vows is referred to the deliberations of those with
whom they will have to live. If it should ever happen
that any member of a community should so far forget
the sanctity of his state and the solemn obligations
which he contracted when he gave himself up to God,
as to deserve expulsion from the Order ; or if he
should become so rebellious and so incorrigible as to
deserve the penalty of excommunication, all would
be called to council, and their respective opinions
would be asked as to the advisability of having
recourse to these extreme measures. Also, when a
Superior wishes to erect any buildings which would
•entail very considerable expense, or to sell any valu-
able piece of property belonging to the monastery, or
to hire or to let for many years what are called im-
movable goods : in each of these instances he would
be obliged to ask the opinion of all the members of
his monastery, for all these are considered to be
matters of grave moment.

Matters of less Moment.— There are other
matters which, though unable to take rank in import-
ance with those just mentioned, yet are grave enough
to call for the counsel of prudent men. In these cases
the Abbot is ordered by St. Benedict to ask the
advice of the elders only, and this because " they
who do all things by counsel are ruled by wis-

Calling the Brethreji to Coitncil. 49

dom,"^ and are advised "to do nothing without counsel,
in order that they may not afterwards have to repent
of their deeds ;" ^ and are induced to act in this way
because " there is safety where there is much counsel."^
Even motives of policy ought to urge him to obey our
Holy Father's injunction, if higher motives have not
any weight with him. For nothing is so offensive in
a ruler as the appearance of looking upon himself as
the only wise and sensible man among those over
whom he holds sway. This assumption of authority,
and this air of regarding himself as Abbot, Prior,
Cellarer, of bearing in his breast the whole commu-
nity, will alienate from him the hearts of his officials,
will render them incompetent, and will paralyse
the executive of the monastery. Besides, when any
of his measures either goes amiss, or turns out a
total failure, the whole blame will fall upon him,
and he will lose that reputation for sagacity which
ought to be one of the distinguishing features in a
Superior. It will give occasion to secret satisfaction
at his discomfiture, and this is a sorry feeling to
engender in the hearts of those who ought not only
to rejoice with him in his joy, but to grieve with him
in his sorrow.

The Elders. — These lesser matters, upon which
the Abbot is advised to consult only the elders, are
manifold in their nature, and at the present day are
regulated by the canon law of the Church. We will
mention these when we have first explained who these
elders are, and the manner in which our Holy Father
orders the Abbot to seek their advice and the advice

2 Prov. xiii. 10. ^ Ecclus. xxxii. 24. ^ Prov. xi. 14.

£

50 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

of the whole community, whenever there is a necessity
for so doing.

In St. Benedict's day the elders of the community
were all those who were distinguished for prudence
and for wisdom, and not merely those who were old
in years, " Cani autem sunt sensus hominis ;" but who
they were, or how many there were who formed this
council, it is not easy to determine ; nevertheless, if
we may judge from the prominent place which in his
Rule he gives to the Provost or Prior, to the Cellarer,
to the Master of the Novices, and to the Deans, we
should not be far wide of the mark if we were to con-
clude that these, or at least some of these, constituted
the council to which, in all matters of grave moment,
the Abbot usually applied for advice. But at the
present day, as we have before remarked, it is the
canon law of the Church which determines who these
councillors are to be, and how numerous they are to
be. In our congregation they are taken from among
those who are called " seniors ;" that is to say, those
among the community who have finished their course
of theological studies, and who have been nine, or at
least seven years in the Order. They must consist of a
third or a fourth of the community. Of these, some
are councillors by right, such as the " Magistri " and
the " Praedicatores Generales ;''^ others by office, such

^ *'Magister" is a title given in our congregation to one
who is remarkable for his learning. He must be a man of
mature age and of blameless character ; he must have taken
either a doctor's or a licentiate's degree in some Catholic Uni-
versity, or at least have taught a full course of theology. The
title **Praedicator Generalis" is given to those who are remark-
able for their learning, &c.

Calling the Brethren to Council. 5 1

as the Sub-Prior, the Cellarer, and the Professor of
Theolog-y ; but these last are of the council only as long
as they hold their respective offices. A new Superior
when installed in office chooses his own council from
among the seniors. If, however, during his term of
office, it should chance that there should be a necessity
for admitting another person to the number of the
council, it is not in his power to nominate him to that
dignity : he must propose him to the members of his
council, who elect him by secret votes, of which more
than half are requisite in order to constitute a valid
election. When admitted to the council-board, each
member is obliged to make a promise of secrecy and
of fidelity ; the violation of this secrecy is punishable
by expulsion from the council.

The Secretary. — One of the councillors is
chosen by the votes of the majority of his colleagues
to act as secretary. After each meeting his duties are
to write in a book specially destined for this purpose
the name of the person who called the council, the
names of those who were present at it, what was there-
in proposed, who it was who made the proposition,
and what was the conclusion at which the members
arrived. These minutes are signed by the Prior and
by the Secretary. When once signed, nothing can be
expunged except by the President during his quadren-
nial visitation. If any councillor objects to the deter-
mination at which his colleagues have arrived, he can
claim to have his protest entered on the council-book,
and the Secretary, at his request, is bound to insert it.
This book is kept by the Prior, and is shown only to
councillors. The frequency with which councils are

52 The Teaching of St. Benedict,

held depends almost entirely upon the occurrence of
anything which seems to require them. Yet if any
member of the council is of opinion that some matter
which affects the well-being of the monastery ought
to be discussed, the Prior, at his request, is bound to
convene a council once in each month, provided that
one has not already been held during the month in
which the request is made.

Method of Procedure. — At all these meetings
the Prior, in pursuance of the directions given by our
Holy Father, first lays before the members of his
council the matter about which he wishes to learn
their views and to ask their advice, but without let-
ting them know what are his own views and senti-
ments. In the next place, he listens to all that they
have to suggest. He then revolves in his mind the
counsel which they have given ; and lastly carries into
effect that which seems good to himself, unless, indeed,
the matter about which he has consulted them is one
of those in which he is obliged by law to follow the
majority of votes. He must be careful, however, not
to come to any decision until he has heard the opi-
nions of all his councillors. It may happen at times
that there is good reason for removing some one of
these from the dignity which he enjoys as a member
of this board. But the Prior cannot do this without,
in the first place, having a grave reason for his action ;
and in the second place, the votes of more than half
the council. Only the President has this power.
Even he uses it only at the request of the Prior, and
when the fault, for which such a penalty is deemed ne-
cessary, has been clearly proved against the delinquent.

Calling the Breth7xn to CoimciL ^2>

When the Superior must consult. — Now
that we are fully acquainted with the constitution of
the Superior's board of councillors, and with the
method in which their deliberations are conducted,
we may next proceed to consider what those cases
are in which the Superior is ordered to consult, and
to obtain their consent, and what those in which he
is bound to follow the majority of their votes.

In the first place, when the horarmm, or time-
table of the monastery, is to be drawn up, the disposi-
tion or arrangement of its hours is not fixed before it
has been submitted to their notice, and their assent to
it has been obtained. Also their advice and consent
are sought for concerning the daily routine of duties,
those only being excepted which have reference to the
choir. When this order has once been well and wisely
fixed it cannot be changed without the permission of
the President-General. With their consent also the time
both for dining and for supping is determined on,
together with the measure of drink which is allowed
to the brethren. Moreover, in all things that are usu-
ally regarded as of grave moment recourse is had to
them for their counsel ; and when that has been given,
for their consent to the execution of that conclusion
at which they have arrived. Should any of the Monks
desire to quit the congregation, in order to join some
other religious body, their assent to such a step must
previously be obtained. It is also requisite before
any layman can be admitted to reside in the monas-
tery ; for the appointment of the Novice-Master ; for
the admission of novices to persevere in the novitiate
— which permission must be asked for every three

54 T^^ Teachmg of St. Benedict.

months, and after the Master has presented his report
on the way in which they have been conducting them-
selves during that period. Again, they are consulted^
and their consent is requisite, whenever it seems desir-
able, in the case of any particular brother, to shorten
the course of studies, and the time which ought to
elapse before his elevation to the priesthood ; for pro-
longing the period of his juniorate ; and for asking
the President's leave to send him to the House of
Studies. Furthermore, without their consent no one
is allowed to take academical degrees ; but to take
the degree of Doctor or of Licentiate in Theology,,
it is necessary to obtain the leave of the President
also. Upon their consent depend also the determin-
ing of the length of time during which postulant
lay-brothers are to be first tried in the secular habit ;
the appointment of an official called a " Depositarian,"
and of a Procurator in England, which office was
necessary when the monasteries were in foreign coun-
tries ; the imposition of censures upon those who
have deserved those penalties ; also one or two other
matters which the altered relations between Church
and State have in these days rendered obsolete.

When obliged to follow the Majority of
Votes. — There are some few cases in which the
Superior is bound by canon law to follow the view,
or the opinion, or the line of action, for which two-
thirds of his councillors have voted ; and there is one
instance in which the votes of the whole council are
requisite before he can proceed to act. The latter is
when, for some particular reason, he wishes to put any
Monk into a higher rank than that which is due unto

Calling the Brethren to CottnciL $$

him from his age in the habit. The former cases are :
first, to admit any one to receive the monastic habit ;
secondly, to admit him to profession after he has
passed through the year of probation ; thirdly, to
admit lay-brothers either to the habit or to profes-
sion ; and lastly, to receive any one to a class of bro-
thers called Oblates — that is to say, persons who are
admitted into the community for the purpose of per-
forming the menial work of the monastery, and who,
at the end of the year of probation, take a simple vow
of obedience to the Superior, in the presence of two
witnesses, and give themselves for life to the monas-
tery.

Then, again, there are three cases in which their
advice is asked for, indeed, but need not be followed,
by the Superior. The first of these is when he has
to absent himself for some considerable time from the
community. This he must not do without calling
his council, and laying this matter before them. The
second is when he wishes to nominate any one to the
office of Sub-Prior. The third when he wishes to
appoint any one to the important post of Cellarer.

Miscellaneous Duties.— At the end of the
President-Generars quadrennial visitation the mem-
bers of the council are called together by him, and
the regulations which he wishes to put in force are
read to them. Also the contents of the document in
which is set forth the whole status of the monastery
are laid before them. This is signed in their presence-
both by the President and by his Secretary. Any
suggestions which the President may think proper
to make for the well-being of the community are

56 The Teaching of St, Benedict.

then made known to them ; each gives his opinion
upon the questions submitted to his judgment ; and
to this the President listens, without, however, being
obhged to follow it. But although he is not obliged
to follow any of their opinions, yet he cannot impose
his injunctions upon the community " in virtue of
holy obedience " without the consent of the greater
number of the councillors. If it should ever happen
that, upon these occasions, the President should be
obliged to exercise the painful duty of suspending the
Superior from his office, on account of some canonical
fault, and that the Sub-Prior, who, in the natural
course of things, ought to take up the reins of office, is
not a fit person to hold them, it is then the duty of the
council, together with the President, to appoint some
one to do this, until the Superior is reinstated in the
office from which he has been excluded.

During the time of the presidential visitation it is
the duty of the council to determine whether it is to
last for more than four or five days ; and, in case the
President is hindered from fulfilling in person this part
of his office, it rests with them to say whether or not
a Definitor of the Regimen is to be received as his
delegate.

Previously to the profession of a novice it is their
duty, together with the Superior, to examine him,
after having heard the Novice-Master's report con-
cerning his behaviour during the year of probation.
• The object of this examination is to test whether he
is sufficiently instructed to take upon himself the
obligation of the vows.

If it should ever happen that the monastery

Calling the Brethre7i to Council. 57

should be deprived at the same time both of Prior
and of Sub-Prior, they would have to choose some
one to rule the community till the election of a
new Superior.

To them the Cellarer's books are submitted for
examination at the end of each half-year ; and it is
at the council-board that the Prior nominates those
who are to act as confessors to the community.

Among our Benedictine Sisters it is the council-
lors of the Abbess, or of the Prioress, who appoint a
delegate to represent them at the general chapter,
whenever their vicar is unable, through some unfore-
seen circumstance, or through illness, to be present at
that assembly.

Such are the duties which fall to the lot of those
who, in these modern days, hold the place of the
men who, in our Holy Father's time, were called
ancients or elders, and were, according to his or-
dinance, the advisers of the Abbot in the various
contingencies which might arise in the course of his
government.

Manner of giving Counsel. — In the delibera-
tions in which they take a part, the most ample liberty
is accorded to each to express his view upon any
question which is submitted to him for consideration.
But while giving a wide scope for freedom of opinion,
St. Benedict is careful to point out the manner in
which that opinion should be expressed. It must be
offered with all due subjection and humility. He
who is asked to give his counsel must remember that
he is a subject, not an equal. Therefore he must
. show all due deference in his manner, in his words,

58 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

and in the tone of voice in which he speaks. He
must not so conduct himself as if all wisdom sat
enthroned in his bosom. He must not deliver him-
self in an oracular manner of the conclusion at which
he has arrived ; as if, after he has spoken, no other
view of the question under debate is admissible. He
must not address either his Superior or his own col-
leagues in a high and clamorous tone of voice. He
must not speak until. he is asked ; nor must he be so
rude as to interrupt others when they are speaking.
He will observe all these counsels, if he be careful to
obey our Holy Father's injunction, to give his advice
" with all subjection and humility." Whenever it hap-
pens that his views and those of his Superior are not
in accord, he must not presume " stiffly to^ maintain
his point, nor insolently to contend with him." Yet,
while forbidding anything so unseemly as this is in
one who is a Religious, our good Father does not
prohibit the Superior's councillors, nor any of us,
from defending our opinions with that moderation and
rational self-composure with which sensible men are
wont to put forward their views. For by saying that
they are neither " stiffly nor insolently " to do this, he
insinuates that they may contend with him in a man-
ner which is neither stiff nor insolent. If the Superior
will not accept the opinion which the councillor offers
to him, the councillor must quietly acquiesce in that
which seems best to the Superior, because it is becom-
ing in him who is but a disciple to obey his master,
and to suffer him to dispose all things with that
prudent forethought, and with that impartial justice,
which it is but natural to look for in one who, by his

Calling the Bi^ethxn to Council. 59

age and by his position, is generally supposed to be
ripe in judgment and sound in all his views.

Departures from* Rule. — In concluding this
admirable chapter, our Holy Father says : "In all
things, therefore, let all follow the Rule as their master^
and from it let no one rashly swerve." From this we
might be led to infer, that the Rule is made supreme
over all. For by the word " alll' Superiors as well
as subjects are ordered to look upon it as their
master, and in all its enactments to yield it a willing
obedience. If this is so, ought we not to conclude
that all power is withdrawn from Superiors to change
it, or to modify it, or to dispense with it ? If this
conclusion is correct, what are we to think of the
many ways in which we, in these days, have departed
from it, in that which it enjoins in such matters, for
instance, as agricultural labour, perpetual abstinence^
the liturgical arrangement of the Divine Office, and
several other points which might be mentioned ? In
answer to these questions, we think that no such con>
elusion as that which is drawn from the first question
can be legitimately deduced. For it must be observed
that St. Benedict, while bidding all without exception
follow the Rule as their master, and ordering them
not to swerve from it in any way whatever, very care-
fully introduces the phrase, " rashly to swerve from
it." Now, a rash swerving from the Rule is in direct
opposition to one that isprude?tt, that is to say, to
one that is sanctioned by right reason and by lawful
authority. It is evident, from several passages in the
Rule, that any such departure as this would not be
reprobated by him. For whenever a valid reason for

6o The Teaching of St. Be7iedict.

any deviation from Rule presents itself, he tells the
Abbot, in as many words, that he must use his own
discretion. Thus he allows him to change the order
which he himself had drawn up for reciting the Psalms
at the Divine Office, if that arrangement did not suit
him.^ He may increase the measure of their drink
and the quantity of their food, whenever he deems
that either their labour or the heat of the season calls
for the one or for the other."^ He may break the
monastic fast in order to entertain a guest.^ He may
add to the amount of the Monk's ordinary clothing,
and change its texture according as the weather or
the climate requires it.^ In a word, he is to consider
the infirmities of those who are in need,^^ and not to
tie himself down to administer a hard and fast rule,
which falls upon the shoulders of all with the undis-
criminating weight of a machine. All this clearly
indicates that St. Benedict leaves in the hands of the
Superior the power to change, to modify, and to dis-
pense with the Rule, whenever the circumstances of
times or of persons may require it. Consequently,
he does not forbid any swerving whatever from the
Rule, but only such a swerving or departure as would
be rash, unreasonable, and whimsical, for which, in
one word, there is no rational cause.

This answer will tell us what we are to think
about the many departures from regular ordinances
ivhich have been made during the centuries which
have elapsed since his day. During that lengthy

^ Regul. chap, xviii. '^ Chaps, xxxix. and xl.

s Chap. liii. ^ chap. v.

10 Chap. V.

Calling the Brethren to Conncil. 6 1

period the whole state of civil society has, in many-
particulars, totally changed ; and, in consequence of
this change, there have sprung up many needs which
did not make themselves felt in those early times.
In the infancy of their existence, our forefathers in
the Order were the heaven-ordained ministers of God,
raised up by Him for the purpose of gathering toge-
ther the seeds of future life from amid the crumbling
elements of a corrupt and decaying civilisation..
Carrying these in their bosoms, they fled into the
solitude of the mountains ; they preserved, they
cherished, they propagated them. They fled from
the face of men in order to preserve themselves from'
the flood of iniquity which was then inundating the
world. But in these our days, and in the days of the
preceding centuries, the mission of the Monk has been
somewhat modified. He has to open wide his store-
house, and to give forth his treasures of learning and
of civilising influences, gathered and carefully guarded
during the long ages which have passed away. Now
that the people are crying for the bread of religious
instruction and for the food of intellectual life, the
Monk has, in great measure, to quit his solitude ; he
has to take with him into the noise, the bustle, and
the unrest of modern life, the -calm, the peace, and
the stability of his cloistral home ; he has to implant
them, together with the science of heavenly and of
earthly things, in hearts which have been scorched^
withered, and blighted by the burning heats of unruly
passion. Consequently, he has, in many respects, to
adapt himself to the altered condition and to the
varying needs of the times. Hence arose the changes

62 The Teaching of St. Benedict,

which have been made in many of the enactments of
the Rule.

From that which we have said in answer to the first
question, it will be evident what our opinion must be
concerning the various departures from the ancient
Rule which have been made and which we are
actually making. When these modifications and
changes and dispensations are made by the authority
of Superiors, and are sanctioned by the Church,
which has in so many instances brought monastic
legislation into unison with her common law, they
must be regarded as belonging to the Rule; for,
ordinarily speaking, they are either declarations of it
or additions to it. Hence the Rule at present consists
partly of the ordinances of Superiors and partly of
the Rule, both together making but one Rule. The
only matters in which no divergence from it either
■ever has been or ever can be permitted are the three
vows and the moral law of God.

Summary.— From all that we have said we may
gather that, in ordinary occurrences. Superiors are to
use their own judgment in the ruling of the monastery,
which is intrusted to their care. In matters of grave
moment they are to ask counsel from the elders. Only
in cases of the utmost importance are they to ask the
opinions of the whole community. The instances in
which Superiors are obliged to consult their council-
lors, as well as those also in which they ni\x?,t follow
the advice which these give, whether it pleases them
or not, are all stated in clear and precise terms, in the
particular constitutions of each Order and of each
congregation. In proffering the advice which is

The Instruments of Good Works. 63

asked of them, St. Benedict is careful to enjoin upon
councillors humility of manner, the deepest respect,
and the utmost consideration for the susceptibilities
of those who have to bear the burden and the respon-
sibility of office. Although he makes the Rule
supreme, and orders all to obey its injunctions, yet
he leaves it in the hands of Superiors, to be by them
modified according to the changing circumstances
both of times and of persons. Finally, he warns all
those who hold the reins of government not to be
high-minded and autocratic in the administration of
the code which is intrusted to them, but to stand in
awe of that dread tribunal beforejwhich they will one
day have to appear, to give a strict account of all
their acts and of all their judgments.

CHAPTER IV.
OF THE INSTRUMENTS OF GOOD WORKS.

St. Benedict has already told us in the Prologue
of the Rule that his aim in drawing up that system
of legislation was to establish a school in which the
method of rightly serving God should be taught. He
evidently regarded this method ^as a kind of science
which it is necessary to impart by certain precepts,
just in the same way in which either theology or
philosophy is conveyed to the mind. It is natural,
therefore, to expect that after describing the scholars,
and pointing out the qualifications to be looked for in

64 The Teaching of St, Benedict,

the teacher who is to rule and to instruct them, and
also one of the chief means by which the government
of this Institute is to be carried on, he should now
put before us the sum of those precepts, whereby the
science which he undertakes to teach may be most
easily acquired. This he does in the present chapter.
But because this science is mastered only by great
labour on the part of the pupil, he changes the meta-
phorical language in which he has already spoken of
the place in which it is studied as " a school " into the
much more appropriate term " workshop ; " and calls
the precepts by which this science is imparted the
tools or instruments, by means of which the servant
of God must fashion his soul into the shape of that
ideal of perfection which has been left to us for imita-
tion by our Divine Lord. Hence this chapter is
generally known as that which treats " of the instru-
ments of good w^orks,'' to wit, of those precepts by the
practice of which all those virtues summed up in the
words " evangelical perfection " are made to flourish
in the soul.

A Digest of the Gospel. — A glance through
these " instruments " or precepts will suffice to show
us that they are a complete digest of the whole
teaching of the Gospel, consisting of the commands of
the Decalogue, the corporal and spiritual works of
mercy, the virtues which are opposed to the seven
deadly sins, and lastly, the four great fundamental
truths, the constant meditation upon which acts as
a spur to the soul, urging it to put in practice all that
is taught in the revelation of God.

In order to give some sort of cohesion to these

The Instruments of Good Works. 6$

oracular sayings, which seem to hang so loosely
together, we will form from them a system of religi-
ous life, after we have first examined into the question
of the source whence our great lawgiver is thought
to have drawn them.

The Source of the "Instrumenta." — Atone
time there was a very widespread belief that St. Bene-
dict had copied these precepts from the letter of Pope
St. Clement to St. James, who is styled in the Gospel
narrative " the brother of the Lord." In an uncritical
age it is easy to understand how readily, and with what
unwavering faith, such an opinion would be accepted.
But in the year 143 1, Cardinal de Cusa, in his work,
De Concordia Catholica, ^ struck the first blow which
staggered the faith of the learned, about the authen-
ticity of the very writings from which our Holy
Father is said to have taken these two-and-seventy"
precepts. After having examined the writings attri-
buted to Clement, Anacletus, and Melchiades, the
learned prelate came to the conclusion, from the many
anachronisms which he discovered in them, and from
the profound silence of antiquity concerning them,
that, to say the least of it, if they were not utterly
unworthy of credence, they were of a very doubtful
character. Thus, in St. Clement's letter, the Saint is
made to inform St. James about the death of St. Peter,
whereas it is well known that St. James had died
several years previously to the great Apostle The
mine of historical criticism, first opened by the Car-
dinal, was worked with unflagging industry by Bellar-
mine and by Baronius, by the Bollandists and by the

^ Lib. iii. cap. 2.

66 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

Ballerini, till these and other writings of a similar
nature were deposed from the unmerited position
which they had once occupied, and relegated to the
shelves upon which reposed, amid dust and in dis-
honour, the apocryphal books and the fables of clever
impostors, who had successfully palmed off their lucu-
brations upon an unsuspecting age, in which the peril
of detection was comparatively slight.

But though the document from which the " Instru-
menta" are reported to have been taken is undoubt-
edly spurious, yet it is not quite clear that the portion
of it in which they are found is the handiwork of the
pseudo-Isidore, who, between the years 829 and 845,
is said to have drawn up the " False Decretals."
According to Mabillon, the first part of the letter of
St. Clement, as far as the phrase, " Sed et nunc jam
exponere quae prsecepit. Domino opem favente, inci-
piam," is very ancient, and was translated from the
original Greek by Rufinus. It was praised by the
Council of Vaison '^ in the year 442. The second
part, however, which begins with the above -cited
words, is apocryphal, and, in the letter which is attri-
buted to St. Clement, was inserted by some impostor
who concocted the " False Decretals.'' Who this
person was is not certain. The honour of having
been the author of this performance is shared by
Benedictus Levita of Mayence, Paschasius Radbert,
Otgar, Archbishop of Mayence, and Agobard, Arch-
bishop of Lyons. As the document bears the signa-
ture " Isidorus Mercator," or "Peccator," this name may
be applied to any one of these. It is in this second
2 In the "province of Aries.

The Instruments of Good Works. 67

part that the " Instruments of Good Works," somewhat
changed both in phraseology and in order, are found.
Hence it is evident that, instead of being copied by
our Holy Father from the apocryphal letter of St.
Clement, they were in reality stolen from the Rule by
the fabricator of the Decretals, and inserted without
acknowledgment in .the document which is falsely
attributed to the saintly Pope and Martyr. If we
bear in mind that our great lawgiver was deeply read
in the sacred Scriptures, and had made them his medi-
tation by day and by night ; if we take the trouble to
examine the pages of the Rule, the very texture of
which is woven out of the words of Holy Writ, we shall
readily admit that he was quite capable of culling
from that inspired volume the maxims of spiritual
wisdom which he has embodied in the present chapter.

Religious System.— Having settled this ques-
tion, we will now endeavour to throw into some sort
of logical sequence the precepts which our Holy
Father has left us, so as to frame out of them a reli-
gious system, of which they will constitute the very
bone and the sinew.

Faith. — Any one who will carefully read through
these two-and-seventy precepts, with which he has
furnished his disciple, for the purpose of aiding him
successfully to labour at the work of his own personal
sanctification, cannot fail to notice that he seems to
take it for granted that the great gift of faith is already
deeply rooted in his heart. Thus faith is the. very
foundation of all sanctity, for without it, it is impos-
sible to please God : " He that cometh to God must
believe that He is, and is a rewarder of them that

68 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

seek Him." ^ Therefore, although he does not in so
many words mention faith among the instruments,
yet he does speak of one which is an unmistakable
sign of its existence in the soul. He bids his disciple
"know for certain that God beholds him in every
place " (49). As, then, this faith comes by hearing,
and as the next best thing which those persons can
do, who cannot always enjoy the privilege of hearing
the Divine Word, is attentively themselves to read it
or to listen to another person reading it, our Holy
Father tells his scholar " willingly to hear holy read-
ings " (56). By making an assiduous use of these two
instruments, he will acquire a sufficient knowledge of
the infinite perfections of God, and particularly of His
unbounded mercy and goodness.

Hope. — The natural effect of such knowledge is
to fill the heart with hope in that never-failing foun-
tain ; hence we are not surprised to find that the
disciple is told to exercise this virtue, by never suffer-
ing himself for a single moment to despair of the
mercy of God (72).

Charity. — From the knowledge of God's infi-
nite perfections, and from hope in His mercy, there
•springs love, or divine charity, to which, as being the
most essential duty, he gives the foremost place :
■" First of all, love the Lord God with all your heart,
with all your soul, and with all your strength " (i).
Then, to show that this is an energising principle
within us, he says : " Daily fulfil by deeds the com-
mands of God " {62).

Commandments. — That there may be no mis-
3 Heb. xi. 6.

The Instruments of Good Works. 69

take about these deeds, he mentions the chief among
them which he would have his disciple practise :
'' Honour all men " (88 and 68). " Obey in all things
the commands of the Abbot '' (60). " Give not way to
murmuring " (39). " Thou shalt not kill " (3). " Thou
shalt not commit adultery " (^4). " Thou shalt not
steal " (5). " Thou shalt not bear false witness" (7/
" Thou shalt not detract thy neighbour " (40). " Thou
shalt not covet" (6). By observing these precepts,
he will "prefer nothing to the love of Christ " (21) ;
"he will put his trust in God " (41) ; "he will often
devoutly pray to Him " (57) ; " with tears and sighs
daily in prayer, he will confess to God all his past
evils, and will amend them for the time to come " (58).

Mortification. — In order to tame his flesh to
such an extent as to enable him to keep these com-
mandments, our Holy Father next orders him " To
deny himself, in order to follow Christ " (10). "To
chastise his body" (11). " Not to seek after delights "
(12). "To love fasting" (13).

Opposition to Deadly Sins. — This self-denial
will make it easy for him to employ those " instru-
ments" by which the deadly sins are warded off from
the soul. These instruments are " Not to be proud "
(34) ; nor haughty (67) ; not given to anger, nor to
envy (65) ; nor to drowsiness (37) ; nor to sloth (38).

Virtues opposed to these Vices. — The effect
of all this upon the soul is an eagerness to practise the
virtues which are opposed to these hateful vices. It
satisfies this eagerness by using the following instru-
ments : To attribute to God whatever good there is
in himself (42). To admit that the evil which he does

70 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

is a natural offshoot of his perverse nature (43). This
temper of mind induces him to make known to his
spiritual father all the evil thoughts of his heart (51).
Not to wish to be esteemed holy before he is really
holy (61). To repel unchaste thoughts by the image
of Christ (50). To refrain from evil and filthy words
(52). To repress the desires of the sinful flesh (59).
To have a profound love of holy chastity (63). Not
to yield to anger (22) ; nor to hatred (64) ; nor to
revenge (23) ; nor to contention with others {66) ;
but to be willing to suffer persecution for justice' sake
(33). Not to be given to wine (35) ; nor to over-
much eating (36); nor to overmuch talking (53);
nor to vain words, and such words as move to laughter
(54). Not to exceed in laughter, especially if it is un-
restrained laughter (55). To keep watch over self (48).
Love of our Neighbour. — To love God is only
half the divine law ; the other half is to love one's
neighbour. Hence St. Benedict places among " the
instruments" of good works those which enable his
disciple to accomplish this part of God's will in his
regard. Consequently, in the words of Holy Writ,
he says to him : " Love your neighbour as your-
self (2). If he is your inferior, love him for Christ's
sake (69). Do not unto him that which you would
not that he should do unto you (9). Forsake not the
charity which you are bound to show unto him (26).
If he injures you, render not evil for evil (29) ; be
reconciled unto him, and let not the peace which you
make with him be a fictitious peace (25). If he hates
you, love him (31) ; if he speaks ill of you,* speak
well of him (32) ; if he injures you, bear it patiently

The Instru7ne7tts of Good Works. 7 1

(30) ; before the close of day be reconciled with those
who are at variance with you (71) ; and, in your
prayers to God, forget not those who are hostile to
you (70). In your dealings with your neighbour, let
there be no deceit in your heart (24) ; let your mouth
speak to him the sentiments of your heart (28) ; then
there will not be any necessity for you to swear unto
him that you mean what you say, and thus you will
never forswear yourself (27)."

Corporal Works of Mercy. — This charity to-
wards our neighbour must not be shut up in the heart
only; it must be poured out into our deeds also.
Hence St. Benedict orders his disciple to relieve the
necessities of the poor (14); to clothe the naked
(15) ; to visit the sick (16) ; to bury the dead (17).

Spiritual Works of Mercy. — Not only the
body but also the soul, must feel the warmth of the
fire of his charity. Hence he must help those
who are in tribulation (18), and comfort those who
are in sorrow (19). The result of keeping the com-
mandments, of shunning the deadly sins, of practising
the virtues opposed to them, and of loving one's
neighbour as one loves one's self, will be the spirit of
unworldliness. Thus St. Benedict's injunction " to
withdraw ourselves from worldly ways" (20) will be
effectually accomplished.

Motive Pov^er. — The motive which incites the
Religious to make a constant use of all these instru-
ments of perfection, and thus to fashion himself into
an exact counterpart of the divine model Jesus Christ,
is that filial fear of God which is kept alive in the heart
by a remembrance of the great truths of faith. Hence

72 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

our Holy Father orders his disciple always to have
death before his eyes (47) ; to fear the day of judg-
ment (44) ; to be in dread of hell-fire (45) ; and to
think of the never-ending joys of heaven, so as to be
filled with the desire of life everlasting (46).

The REWARD.-^If, during his life, the disciple
make a constant use of all these various instruments
or tools of the " spiritual art,'' so as to merit the
approval of his heavenly Master, that good Lord will
recompense his labour with a reward so surpassingly
great, that eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, nor the
heart of man been able to conceive anything that can
give an adequate idea of its nature.

CHAPTER V.

OBEDIENCE.
The virtue which is the subject of this chapter
may be said to constitute the very essence of the
religious life. For it is not poverty which makes a
man a Religious, nor chastity ; nor both these virtues
combined. Then only is he worthy to bear this name
when he unites both vows in the vow of obedience.
It is, therefore, but natural that St. Benedict should
dedicate a special chapter to the treatment of it, and
should, in various other parts of his Rule, recur to it
again and again. On reading it, the first thing that
strikes us is the apparent contradiction between that
which he says in the seventh chapter and that which
he says here, when he tells us that the first degree of
humility is " obedience without delay." In the seventh

Obedience. ' ^ 73

chapter he says that it is the " fear of God." This
apparent discrepancy is explained by various inter-
preters in various ways. Some say that the true read-
ing is, " The first degree of obedience is obedience
without delay ;" but the majority of critics maintain
that St. Benedict wrote the sentence just as it stands
in the text, because humility and obedience are so
interwoven the one with the other that neither can be
said to have an independent existence. There are
some, however, who say that he calls it the first
degree, not in order, but in excellenceand in dignity.
Others that he so styles it because exUdnsically obe-
dience is the first degree of humility, while intrinsi-
cally the fear of God undoubtedly holds that place.
Others, again, hold that St. Benedict meant that obe-
dience is first in utility, without any reference what-
ever to the order of place. There are others who
maintain that all that he wished his disciples to under-
stand by these words is that obedience is first, not
absolutely, but only as one of those virtues which a
Religious mustyfr^*/ learn to practise when he embraces
the monastic life.

The Sum-total of St. Benedict's teaching on the
virtue of obedience may be comprised under three
heads: (i) Tho: motives for subjecting one's self to
the authority of a Superior, which are the fear of hell
and the desire of everlasting life. (2) The manner
in which obedience is to be paid, which is, that the
Superior should be obeyed as if he were Christ Him-
self. (3) The qualities of obedience, which are, that
it should be prompt, intrepid, manful ; not cold, not
murmuring, but willing and joyous.

74 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

System of Obedience. — The teaching of St.
Benedict on this subject, as we see it in the different
chapters of the Rule, may be reduced to a system, if
we consider: (i) whom we are to obey; (2) in
what things we are to obey ; (3) in what manner we
are to obey.

Whom. — (i) The Abbot or Superior, whom St.
Benedict wishes to hold the place of Christ in every
monastery. He is to be obeyed in all lawful matters,
even though he himself should chance to be personally
unworthy of esteem. For the wickedness of those who
hold power does not deprive them of their authority :
" Be submissive, not only to the good and gentle, but
also to the froward." ^ As our Lord teaches, we are in
these cases to follow the Superior's doctrine, but not
his example : " What they say, do ye ; but what they
do, do ye not." 2

(2) All officials appointed by the Superior ; for,
inasmuch as they are his representatives, they deserve
the same obedience. These, as well as the Abbot or
Superior, must always remember that they are vested
with authority, not to lord it over their brethren, but
to be among them as their servants, as the last and
least of the community.

(3) One another. This, however, is an obedience
not of precept, but of counsel.

Constituent Elements of Obedience. — (i)
Reverence. " In honour preventing one another."
The seniors or elders are told always to address the
juniors as " Brothers ;" the juniors are told to call the
seniors "Reverend Fathers." If a junior meets a
1 I St. Peter ii. 18. 2 st. Matt, xxiii. 3.

Obedience. y$

senior, he asks a blessing. At the present day this is
done by simply uncovering the head and saluting. If
he is seated when a senior comes to the place in
which he happens to be, he rises to give him place.
If he is rebuked by the Superior or by a senior, or if
he perceives that they are vexed with him, he falls
on his knees, and does not rise till he is told to do so.

(2) Subjection of the judgment. The Religious
is cautioned by our Holy Father against obeying with
an evil mind or an evil heart. Therefore his duty is
to obey with a good mind and w^ith a good heart.
By the heart is meant the intellect, or the will, or the
soul. Therefore the intellect must submit as well as
the will : " He wills to have an Abbot over him, and to
walk according to his judgment " {aj^bitrio). This obe-
dience of the intellect is more perfect than that of the
will, because it requires more self-effacement. In
order to enable ourselves to submit in this way, we
must shut our eyes to th^ person who commands ; we
must not reflect upon nor curiously examine into the
nature of the things which he orders ; we must not
judge of his intentions.

In v^hat Things we must obey. — (i) In
all things ; but as the Superior holds the place of
Jesus Christ, St. Benedict takes it for granted that he
will never order anything except that which would
meet with the approval of our Divine Lord.

(2) In all things according to Rule. Our obe-
dience is promised according to the Rule of St. Bene-
dict ; arid, consequently, it is limited to those things
which that Rule prescribes.

(3) Hard and impossible things. Those things

76 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

are said to be hard which can be accomplished only
with great labour and effort. Those things are said
to be impossible which altogether surpass the strength
of nature. These are not the impossibilities of which
St. Benedict speaks in the Rule. For anything may
be said to be impossible in one of these four ways : by
nature ; e.gi it is impossible for a brute beast to reason:
by reason of bodily weakness ; e.g. it is impossible for
a child to carry the burdens of a man : by inex-
perience or by ignorance ; e,g. it is impossible for an
uncultured peasant to read Greek: by the persever-
ance of a constant will, by the fidelity of friendship ;
e.g. it is impossible to break vows, oaths, the law of
God. Only this last kind of impossibility is excluded
from our obedience ; the other three kinds may be
the objects of it. But when commands which come
under any of these three aforementioned heads are
imposed upon us, two things are to be considered :
(i) the accom.plishment of the command; (2) the
disposition promptly to obey. It is this latter which
is ordered by our Superiors when they impose these
impossibilities upon us. They do not mean us to
execute them, but only to show our readiness and
our willingness to accomplish them. When they
impose upon us anything which is altogether be-
yond our strength, the Rule points out to us that
which we must do. It tells us patiently and in due
season^ without pride, or resistance, or contradic-
tion, to lay before our Superior the causes of our
inability to comply with his orders. If, after this, the
Superior insists upon the execution of his order, our
Holy Father's advice to us is : " Know that it is for

Obedience. yy

your good, and trusting in the assistance of God, obey
through love for Him." ^

Qualities of Obedience. — Our obedience ought
to be (i) without delay; (2) humble in mind and
in heart; (3) patient; (4) unhesitating; (5) with-
out any fear ; (6) not cold ; (7) cheerful.

Ladder of Obedience. — In obedience, as in
humility, there are certain degrees, out of which we
may construct a ladder, by ascending the various
steps of which we shall at last reach the summit or
perfection of this essential virtue of religious life. It
consists of twelve steps or degrees : ( i ) To obey the
Abbot. (2) To obey the seniors and the brethren. (3)
To obey in all things. (4) To do all things in the spirit
of obedience. (5) To obey without delay. (6) To
deny our self-will in our obedience. (7) To deny our
judgment in obedience. (8) To obey with humility.
(9) To obey with patience. (10) To obey with-
out either fear or hesitation. (11) Not to obey with
coldness. (12) To obey with joy of heart.

Defects of Obedience.— (i) To obey orders
which we like, but to disobey those which we do not
like. (2) To obey imperfectly. (3) To obey, but to
do that which we are ordered in the way in which it
pleases us to accomplish it. (4) To show unwilling-
ness in our obedience. (5) To obey through fear.
(6) To obey only after a lengthy discussion. (7) To
obey with murmuring. (8) To obey with sadness.
(9) To execute the orders of obedience in a careless,
oflThand manner.

• Cap. Ixviii.

78 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

CHAPTER VL

SILENCE.

It is not without good reason that, in this parti-
cular place, St. Benedict introduces the chapter on
the great monastic virtue of silence. It stands between
the chapter on obedience and the chapter on humility ;
and it holds this particular position because silence
partakes so largely of both these virtues, and is so
materially aided by them, that they may be said to be
its props and stays. In perusing this part of our Holy
Father's legislation upon silence, the first thing that
strikes us is the total absence of any provision for
what we might call the recreation of social intercourse.
There is no mention whatever of any fixed time
during which the Monks are allowed to speak together.
And yet it is evident from the Rule that the silence
enjoined by St. Benedict is not perpetual. For we
remark that he says : " Let leave to speak be seldom
given." ^ " When anything has to be asked for, it
should be asked for at suitable times." ^ One of the
retrenchments which he recommends in time of Lent
is the repression of talk and of laughter, ^ He allows
those who meet the guests of the monastery to ask
for their blessing, and if spoken to by those who
happen to be visiting the monastery, to tell them that
Monks may not converse with guests. Also, they
could ask their Superiors for advice ; they could
manifest to them the state of their conscience, and
receive from them instruction. With these exceptions,
^ Cap. vi. 2 (^ap. xxxi. ^ Cap. xl., ix.

Silence. 79

there was no recreation - time properly so called.
This was introduced in process of years and by little
and little, till at last it became a recognised institution,
and was legislated for in various monastic codes and
constitutions. It is clear, therefore, that although per-
petual silence was not enforced, yet the rare occa-
sions when leave to speak was granted were limited
to those which necessity, or mutual edification, or
public or private utility required. If, then, they were
to be sparing of even good words, with how much
greater reason ought they to abstain from all those
which are evil ! Of these latter, he marks out for
perpetual exile from the cloister three kinds : those
which are scurrilous ^ those which are idle^ and those
which provoke to laughter.

Scurrilous Words. — We should consider those
words to be " scu7'rilous " which are abusive and unbe-
coming. But in St. Benedict's mind scurrility meant
something worse than this or than mere buffoonery.
The word is derived from scurra, which in its turn
comes from the Latin word sequor—1 follow. Para-
sites were termed " Scurrae," or followers of their
rich patrons. They were admitted to their festive
boards in order to amuse the guests by their gibes,
their jests, and their unlicensed jocularity. Hence
any indecent, filthy story came to be called scurrilous.
Therefore, when St. Benedict forbids scurrility, it is
all conversation of this nature as well as all abusive
language which he proscribes. It is, of course, needless
to remark that any one who is given to such sins of
the tongue as are forbidden by the sixth command-
ment— that is to say, all immoral, obscene, and filthy

8o The Teaching of St. Benedict.

language — is not likely to seek a retreat in the cloister.
Therefore it seems superfluous to make such an
enactment as this. But in St. Benedict's time, when
men of all classes and from every rank in life were
flocking into the monasteries, it was by no means
superfluous. However, at the present day we may
take it as a law which proscribes and banishes from
our midst all the less objectionable forms of speech,
which are, to say the least, very unbecoming in the
mouths of those who are consecrated to the service
of God.

Idle Words. — It is because of the terrible severity
of the dread tribunal of God that our Holy Father
forbids his children to indulge in conversations that
are even merely idle and not sinful. " Every idle word
that men shall speak, they shall render an account of
it in the day of judgment."^ We may define an idle
word to be " that which is useless both to the speaker
and to the hearer ; which does neither good nor evil."
To prevent our words from being idle, it is not neces-
sary that we should have some pious intention in
uttering them. Provided that they are directed to
procure some useful purpose, they cannot be called
" idle'' To unbend the mind after severe study, to
divert the thoughts of a friend from gnawing cares, to
change the current of a conversation which is flowing
in a dangerous direction, these and the like intentions
are amply sufficient to make our words anything but
idle, no matter how frivolous and apparently non-
sensical they in themselves may chance to be.

Words which provoke to Laughter. — To

^ St. Matt. xii. 36.

Silence. 8i

proscribe words of this nature at first sight seems to
be excessively rigorous. What would become of our
social intercourse if all merriment were banished from
it ? It would be simply unbearable. We cannot,
therefore, think that St. Benedict would wish us to
be so funereal in our conversation as to eliminate
from it all harmless hilarity. In this particular passage
his intention seems to be, to prohibit all such laughter
as is begotten of sctirriloiis conversation. For in
other parts of the Rule he tells us " not to love imich
and dissolute, i.e. unrestrained, laughter ; " ^ not to be
easily moved and prompt to laugh. From which it is
evident that gentle, moderate, decorous laughter would
not meet with his reproof That which he would
never tolerate are the loud, vulgar, unrestrained
peals of laughter which betray the empty, unthinking
mind.

Places in which silence is kept. If the words of
the Rule were strictly interpreted, silence would have
to be observed in eveiy place, since it is ordered to be
kept at all times. But this would be straining the
words to mean that which they were never intended
to signify. We have already seen that the silence
enjoined by St. Benedict is not perpetual ; and from
his legislation about the observance of Lent, we dis-
cover that during this penitential season he looks for a
more stringent observance of the already strict rule re-
specting silence. It will follow, therefore, that if there
be times of stricter silence, there will be also places in
which a more rigorous observance of it will be ex-
pected. The first of these is :

^ Cap. iv. Instrum. 55.

G

8 2 The Teaching of St. Benedict,

The Refectory. — The words of the Rule are :
" The greatest silence shall be kept at table, so that
no muttering nor voice shall there be heard, except
the voice of the reader." ^ The brethren are to make
signs for those things of which they stand in need.
They must neither make remarks upon what is read,
nor ask any questions about it. Only the Superior is
allowed to say anything about the reading, if he
should deem it expedient to remark upon it.

The Dormitory. — That the strictest silence was
observed in the dormitory may be gathered from the
words of the forty - second chapter, in which it is
ordained that after Compline no one shall be permitted
to speak. For the breach of this rule a severe penalty
was inflicted ; and the only exceptions to its observ-
ance were made if guests arrived during the night-
time, and if there supervened any urgent necessity
vhich seemed to require such a dispensation. Special
leave was then asked from the Abbot, and, when it
was granted, those who were permitted to speak were
instructed to do so with great gravity and moderation,
so as to make evident by their conduct that they were
conscious of the solemnity of this the ^^ great silence''
This begins at Compline, and ends usually after Prime
on the following morning.

The Oratory or Chapel. — It is enacted in
the Rule that this shall be a place for prayer and for
nothing else. Consequently, as soon as the Divine
Office is ended, the Monks are ordered to go forth
from the oratory " with exceeding great silence," after
first making a lowly reverence to the Divine Presence

^ Cap. xxxvi.

SileJice. 83

abiding there in the Most Holy Sacrament. This is to
insure tranquiUity for those who wish to return and
apply themselves to prayer.

The Sacristy. — Besides those places specially
mentioned by the Rule as places in which silence is
to be observed, each monastery has certain parts
within its own precincts in which Superiors enjoin
the observance of strict silence. It is natural that the
first of these should be the sacristy, because of its
intimate connection with the house of God, and of its
close proximity to the oratory or chapel. Unless this
rule be observed, the faithful will be scandalised and
the sacred ministers disturbed during their functions
in the very sanctuary itself The other places in which
silence is usually enjoined are the library, the clois-
ters, and the common-room. In this respect the
customs of various monasteries are not always in
accord.

Reasons for Silence. — The main reason for
which St. Benedict so strongly insists upon the disci-
pline of silence is to give his children a mastery over
that unquiet evil, the tongue. Look at the use which
men ordinarily make of it, and you will cease to
wonder why, like all the great ascetical teachers, he
is such an enemy of speech. There are some persons
who can narrate scarcely any trivial occurrence with-
out either grossly exaggerating it or minimising it, just
as it suits their purpose. They make uncharitable
insinuations about their neighbouc. They boast about
themselves and their own performances ; they tell idle
stories ; they detract from their neighbour's good
fame, and sometimes ^o so far as to calumniate him.

84 The Teaching of St. Benedict,

In these circumstances all their good and useful
thoughts evaporate, their fervour cools, their charity-
grows cold, and they end by losing the grace of God.
*' In much speaking thou shalt not escape sin."^

■ The Difficulty of bringing the tongue under
control is another reason why St. Benedict enjoins
silence. It is easier to tame the ferocity of the lion
and of the tiger, to overcome the timidity of birds,
and to charm the venom from the serpent's tooth,
than to overcome the malignity of the human tongue.
Man can do all this in the case of the animal creation,
but, without the grace of God aiding his own fixed
purpose, he cannot tame the restless evil which he
carries in his own mouth. When he can keep that
quiet, he can keep his soul in peace. He can put a
bit between his jaws, and can turn himself whitherso -
ever he pleases. The consciousness of this truth made
the Wise Man exclaim : " Who will set a guard before
my mouth, and a seal upon my lips, that I fall not by
them, and that my tongue destroy me not ?" ^ Only
God, by His divine power, can do this. Therefore
the Psalmist prays : '* Set a watch, O Lord, before my
mouth, and a door round about my lips." ^

Our Lord's Love of Silence. — This was
another very powerful motive with the holy men of
old, and with the founders of religious Orders, to
induce, them to have a special predilection for silence.
Look at the wondrous silence of the Son of God*
He is the wisdom of the Eternal Father, and His
words are luminous with the uncreated wisdom of the
Deity; yet for thirty years He keeps those lips closely
^ Prov. X. 19. ^ Ecclus. xxii. 33. ^ Ps. cxl. 3.

Silence. 85

sealed. Only a few words are recorded, the rest is
silence. When the time preordained of God had
come, He spoke with effect, but yet His words were
given out in number, in weight, and in measure. In
the presence of Caiaphas He maintained a deep
silence as to His doctrine, concerning which that
crafty and malignant man presumed to question Him;
and, though accusations by false witnesses were
poured in against Him, He gave them not even a
passing notice. Puzzled and baffled, the hypocritical
priest, in a tone of suppressed rage, cried out :
** Answerest thou nothing to the things which these
witness against thee? But Jesus held His peace." ^^
When left in the hands of the ministers of the high
priest's household, and made the butt of all their
malignant hatred and clumsy ridicule, He maintained
an unbroken silence, as if He had been a man of stone,
and not, on the contrary, keenly alive to every blow,
to every insult, to every cutting gibe and unseemly
jest. Before the Roman governor He held His
peace, though accused on many points, so that Pilate
in amazement said to Him : " Dost Thou hear how
great testimonies they allege against Thee? And
He answered him never a word. So that the gover-
nor wondered exceedingly." ^^ To all the questions
addressed to Him by Herod He did not deign to give
even one word of response, so that the adulterous
wretch scorned Him as a fool, and sent Him back to
Pilate.

Our Lady's Love of Silence. — For thirty years
she had daily and hourly before her eyes Jesus, the
1^ St. Matt, xxvi 12, 63. 11 Ibid, xxvii. 12, 14.

86 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

lover of silence. She could not but imitate One in
Whom all the love of her heart was centred. How
deep, then, is her silence concerning all that our hearts
are yearning to know, and of which only she could
speak with certainty and authority ! Only four times
do the Evangelists record her words: first, her inter-
view with the angel concerning the mystery of the
Incarnation ; then the interchange of greetings be-
tween herself and her holy cousin St. Elizabeth ;
next, the words of loving remonstrance addressed to
her Divine Child, when, after three days of sorrowful
searching, she found Him in the Temple ; and lastly,
when, out of her immense charity, she informed Him
at the marriage-feast of the straits to which the
young couple were reduced by the failure of the
wine. Here, then, we have before us the two who are
dearest to our hearts as models of that self-denying
virtue of silence, which St. Benedict considers to be so
important and necessary for Religious as to write
a whole chapter of his Rule to inculcate its practice.
Their example should be a very powerful motive to
urge upon us the observance of silence, and to make
us set a high value upon the careful guardianship of
our tongue.

If we be careful to keep these two models of
silence before our mind's eye, we shall be sparing of
even those words which are in themselves good and
conducive to the edification of others. We .shall
studiously avoid all those which are scurrilous, or
idle, or productive of that unrestrained laughter which
springs from the narration of that which is unseemly.
We shall respect those places in which silence is

Of Htimility. 87

enjoined by the Rule, either of St. Benedict or of the
particular house or monastery in which we chance to
live. We shall be careful to be silent at all the times
indicated by Rule and by Superiors. The outcome
of the observance of silence will be solitude of heart,
in which the Holy Spirit is wont to speak to the soul,
and that perfect control of the tongue which will
keep us from offending in word. " If any man offend
not in word, the same is a perfect man." ^^

CHAPTER Vn.

OF HUMILITY.

Man is naturally so full of the idea of his lofty
destiny that he instinctively aims at being something
greater and higher than he actually is. Finding that
he is not in reality that which he would like to be,
he pretends to be that which he is not, and is, in a
certain sense, satisfied if his fellow-men should take
him to be that which he is not. This is to enact a
lie. It is to aim at lofty things above himself. It is
to prefer to seem to be rather than actually to be^
Now, this is in direct opposition to the will of God.
His desire is that we should be content to be in the
eyes of our fellow-men that which we are in His eyes,
not any better, nor any worse. For a being so full of.
pride as man is this is an arduous task, calling upon
him at every moment for an amount Of self- repression
and of self-effacement, of which he is naturally incap-

^2 st^ James iii. 2.

88 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

able. This self-repressivepoweris called "humility ;" by
some it is defined to be " truth in the sight of God ;"
by others, " a virtue which puts a curb upon the mind,
and prevents it from immoderately tending to great
things above itself."^ When it is in the heart of any
one, it brings its repressive power to bear upon him
in four different ways : first, it causes him not to wish
that others should believe him to be that which he is
not; secondly, it causes him not to prefer any advan-
tages which he may possess, to the advantages which
other men possess ; thirdly, it makes him acknowledge
that these excellences do not spring from himself ;
fourthly, it makes him attribute them all to God,
their true source. Therefore humility is a fundamental
virtue. Charity cannot exist without it ; for the love
of God cannot be in a heart in which pride finds a
home, nor can purity exist there, unless humility also
is there to give it a foothold. St. Benedict, con-
sequently, has given in a compendious form quite a
treatise on this most important virtue ; for as it was
his purpose to build up in the hearts of his children
an edifice of Christian perfection, he was anxious, like
every builder, to be quite sure of the foundations upon
which that edifice is to rest. His wide experience
taught him the necessity for it, because he had seen
those who were esteemed to be pillars of the Church
and of the monastic life utterly ruined through the
absence of this essential virtue. From what we have
said it will be seen that humility consists in the repres-
sion of the soul's appetite for undue exaltation. That
which regulates the degree of repression which is
^ St. Thorn, ii. ii, q. i6i.

Of Hunt ility. 8 g

necessary is self-knowledge. This self-knowledge is
the outcome of knowledge of God, compared with
Whose infinite perfection we are as nothing. Hence
we may say that the " genesis " of humility is know-
ledge of God ; this knowledge begets self-knowledge,
which in its turn applies the curb upon the appetite
for undue exaltation, and thus begets humility. This
internal disposition of the soul manifests its existence
by words, by deeds, and by the general behaviour of
our body. Hence we obtain the twelve degrees of
humility :

Knowledge of God. — i. Fear of God. 2. Repres-
sion of self-will. 3. Submission of the will to Superiors.
4. Obedience in matters which are hard and difficult.

Self-Knowledge. — 5. Confession of faults and
of defects. 6. Admission of inefficiency for great
things by reason of defects. 7. Preference of others
to self, because of these defects in our character.

Humility in Deeds. — 8. Avoiding all singularity.

In Words. — 9. Speaking only in due season.
1 1. — Not betraying pride in our way of speaking.

Outward Bearing. — 12. Lowliness of heart
quenches the haughty fire of the eyes. 10. Stifles all
unseemly laughter and misplaced joy.

The Ladder of Humility. — These are the
twelve steps of the ladder of humility, which ladder, as
our Holy Father explains, is our life here in the world.
Its sides are our soul and our body, in which God has
placed these various steps which we must ascend.
Now, at first, we should be inclined to think that if
humility is a ladder, the topmost round of it ought to
be the perfection of this virtue. But as we read on

90 The Teachmg of St. Benedict.

through the chapter, and pass from degree to degree,
or, -as we should say, from step to step, it becomes
evident to us that there is not in them a progress from
less to greater. The second step is not a develop-
ment of the first, and higher than it. There is no
reason why we should not practise the virtue inculcated
by the sixth, the eighth, and the twelfth step before
we practise the first. Therefore it seems to us to be
clear that by this ladder of humility St. Benedict did
not mean to put before us a kind of ascending scale,
which starts with that which is imperfect, and ends
with that which is perfect. The best way to explain
the figure is to consider that the various steps or
degrees are so many different manifestations of the
virtue of humility, both in outward and in inward acts.
As humility is a virtue, the office of which is to
curb our appetite for undue elevation, we may look
upon each of these degrees or steps as so many
different ways in which it brings its repressive power
to bear upon that insatiable craving which is in the
heart of man. Self-knowledge, gained by comparison
of our nothingness with the infinite perfections of
God, engenders reverential fear, which is the root
whence humility springs. Fear, however, is of three
kinds : first, that which \^ filial; secondly, that which
is merce7iary ; thirdly, that which is servile. We find
all three kinds in the first degree of humility. St.
Benedict tells us that " those who contemn God by
breaking His commandments fall into hell for their
sins" — this is servile fear of God ; he bids us remem-
ber that " everlasting life is prepared for those who
fear God " — this is mercenary fear ; he bids us always

Of Hwnihty. 91

be mindful of God's commands, and tells us that this
mindfulness " casts out fear and makes us obey as
children'' — this is y?//^/ fear. The effect of this last
kind of fear is to withdraw us from sin ; it keeps our
thoughts and our lips pure ; it guards our eyes from
looking at vanity, our hands from the commission of
evil, our feet from the ways of sin ; it curbs our self-
will and our unruly desires.

The Second Degree. — This consists in not
being wedded to our own will. We submit our will
to God, because we fear and reverence Him. We
submit it to His law for the same reason. But in
doing this we become aware oi th^ perversity of our
own will. We see how we struggle against God ;
what it costs us to do that which is right ; how easily
we introduce self-will even into that which we do
for God. Hence we distrust self-will, and begin to
desire to do God's will. * The necessity for this is
the example of Christ, and the fact that a penalty
follows its non-fulfilment, a reward its faithful accom-
plishment. In confirmation of this, St. Benedict
cites as Scripture the words, " Self-will engendereth
punishment, and necessity purchaseth a crown."
These words, however, are not to be found in the
Bible. Nor does our Holy Father wish us to believe
that they are to be found there, in so many words,
but only their sense. Interpreters of the Rule are of
opinion that this sentence sums up the meaning of
several texts. The first part — " Self-will engendereth
pain " — they consider to be drawn from the \yords,
" Broad is the way that Jeadeth to destruction." ^ The

2 St. Matt. vii. 13.

92 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

second part — " necessity purchaseth a crown " — they
consider to be taken from the words, " Strait is the
way that leadeth to life.'' ^ A second commentator
thinks that the sentence is a reference to the text,
" That servant who knew the will of his Lord, and
prepared not himself, and did not according to His
will, shall be beaten with many stripes." ^ A third
would have it that it is the combination of two texts
drawn from widely different sources : the first part from
Jeremias,^ " Those who were fed delicately (i.e. who
gratified self-will) died in the streets " — a penalty for
their pride ; the second part, a reminiscence of the
Apostle's words : " Every one who striveth for the
mastery (by subjecting himself to a sort o{ necessity)
refraineth himself from all things," &c.^ Dom
Hseften, however, thinks that the sentence is nothing
more than a well-known proverb which St. Benedict,
following the custom of many of the ancient Fathers,
calls Scripture,

The Third Degree. — This follows as a natural
consequence from the one which precedes it ; for if
humility bring the will into subjection to God, it will
also bring it into subjection to those who hold His
place. The motive which St. Benedict suggests to
urge this is " the love of that God " to Whom the will
has already subjected itself. This is a strong incen-
tive ; but it requires a powerful lever to move the
will to this difficult task. It is comparatively easy to
obey God, Whom we know to be so wise, so just, so
good ; but any Superior may be lacking in all those

3 St. Matt. vii. 13. 4 St. Luke xii. 47.

^ Lam. iv. 5. ^2 Cor. ix. 25.

Of Hum ility. 9 3

qualities which command respect and elicit love.
Therefore a very strong constraining power is needed
to bring the will into submission to that which he
orders. St. Benedict consequently adduces the
strongest which he knew ; because in addition to the
difficulty of obeying a man as readily as we obey our
Lord, he requires us " with all obedience " to submit
ourselves to him.

Blind Obedience. — By inserting that one little
clause, our holy lawgiver wishes us blindly to obey
those whom God has placed over us ; that is to say,
he wishes us to subject to our Superiors our intelli-
gence as well as our will. But yet by this you
must not imagine that he wishes you to close the eyes
of your intellect, and to obey only with your will.
To do that is an impossibility, for nothing can be in
the will unless it has first been in the intelligence.
If any one were to obey in this way, he would be
obeying like a machine, and there would be no merit
in his act. That which he means by blind obedience
is an obedience in which the judgment is subjected
to that of the Superior, and subjected in such a way
as to judge that what he orders is the best. How,
you will ask, is it possible for any one to obey in this
manner ? We answer, by making use of a reflex act,
by which the subject thus reasons with himself:
" Though that which is ordered seems to me to be ill-
advised and wrong, yet there may be circumstances
with which my Superior is acquainted, and of which
I know nothing. These, if understood by me, would
quite change the whole aspect of things. Therefore,
on that supposition, I set aside my objections, and

94 2^^^ Teaching of St. Benedict.

obey." Even if the subject knows for certain that the
Superior is wrong, and that he himself is right, yet
even so, by this reflex act, he can submit his judgment
to him, and blindly obey ; for he can reason thus
with himself: "I am in the hands of Divine Providence.
He directs all things for our good. By suffering this
mistake to happen. He wishes to humble me, and to
try my virtue ; therefore under this respect the com-
mand of my Superior is best. I submit my judgment
and obey." If the worst comes to the worst, and we
deem that it is impossible to obey, then we must
look upon the command as coming under the head
of " those impossibilities " which St. Benedict provides
for, by asking us to make an attempt to obey, trust-
ing in the never-failing aid of God.

With all Obedience. — This means also that
the whole man obeys ; not intellect and will only, but
the body also, together with all its powers. The feet
must be prompt and swift to carry us to obedience ;
the hands ready to execute ; the eyes to sparkle with
pleasure at the task which is imposed ; the face to
beam with joy in the performance of it.

Another meaning which may be given to the
clause, "with all obedience," is that we are always to
obey. Not for a time only, but for ever. It is easy
to obey for a year, or while one is in one's first fervour,
or while one is young. The difficulty is to go on
with this from year to year till the last day of our
mortal career. Yet this is what St. Benedict wishes
us to do. Hence the necessity for patience or long-
suffering in obedience. To encourage us to perse-
vere in our obedience, he adduces the example of

Of Hu7n ility, 9 5

Jesus Christ, *'^ Who was obedient unto death, even to
the death of the Cross."

The Fourth Degree is to obey, notwithstand-
ing all the hard and contrary things that are to be
met with in obedience. These arise from the duties
which we have to perform, from the perso7is with
whom we have to live ; and from the Superiors who
impose commands upon us. First, our duties, such
as fasting, abstinence, the observance of monastic
discipline, rising for Matins, solitude, obedience to
bells, &c. Secondly, persons with whom we live.
These at times are rough in character, impetuous in
temper, stubborn in argument, prejudiced in their
judgments ; or, again, there may be some who are
weak and irresolute, full of faults, jealous, envious,
spiteful, and given to detraction. Thirdly, Superiors,
who, though God's representatives, are yet men, and
subject to many of the faults and the infirmities inciden-
tal to human nature. They may be unsympathetic and
gruff; they may be haughty in bearing and imperi-
ous in manner. The cares of office may make them
irritable and always preoccupied. Not less difficult
to endure are those who are timid, irresolute, and
scrupulous ; who suffer abuses to creep in, and have
not any decided line of policy in anything. For all
these ills, and the contradictions arising from these
three sources, the sovereign remedy is the patient,
long-suffering obedience counselled in this fourth
degree.

From what we have said thus far, it is evident
that the fear of God makes man submit to the com-
mands which the Lord imposes upon him ; then to the

96 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

orders of those who, in his regard, hold God's place ;
and finally, to these orders, even when that which
they enforce is hard and contrary to the natural in-
clination of him upon whom they are imposed. These
three ways in which the human will is made to yield
under the pressure of the fear of God, together with
that fear itself which is their cause, constitute the first
four degrees of humility. The opinions which this
virtue causes man to have about himself furnish the
next ^three steps in the ladder by which St. Bene-
dict wishes that all his children should ascend to
heaven.

The Fifth Degree. — The light which humility
kindles in the mind enables us to see ourselves, to a
certain extent at least, as God sees us. The revela-
tion of our real worth which that sight unfolds to our
gaze makes us estimate ourselves at our true value.
We recognise our many vices, defects, shortcomings,
and blush as they stand out clear before us. But
though we are painfully conscious of their existence,
yet others, often enough have not even a suspicion of
our inward deformity. Humility makes us desirous
that they should see us, not as they imagine us to be,
but such as we know ourselves to be. We lift the
veil which hides us from their gaze, and we do this by
our words : "The fifth degree of humility is to mani-
fest to the Abbot by humble confession all the evil
thoughts of our heart, and the secret faults committed
by us." The natural man would wish to let the veil
hang down over all this moral deformity ; but he in
whose heart humility has fixed its root tears it
away, and lets himself be seen just as he is.

Of Httmility. 9 7

There is some doubt as to whether St. Benedict is
here speaking of sacramental confession, or only of
that manifestation of conscience which, in religious
Orders, is made to Superiors. Smaragdus, Turrecre-
mata, and others think that sacramental confession is
here spoken of ; Craesbeeck, Perez, and Alvarez de
Paz, that manifestation of conscience as well as con-
fession is intended ; Hseften is inclined to take this
latter view, but thinks that, in this particular chapter,
only manifestation of conscience is meant. This last
opinion seems to be the best founded ; for in the forty-
sixth chapter our Holy Father discriminates between
the two when he says : " But if the fault is a secret
sin, let him manifest it to the Abbot only or to his
spiritual seniors, who know how to heal their own
wounds, and not to disclose or to publish those of
others.''

The Sixth Degree. — He who is thus willing to
recognise his defects, and to make them known to
others, will readily admit his inability to fill import-
ant offices, and will, therefore, be content with all
that is meanest and poorest. This is the sixth degree
of humility. When the Monk was in the world, it
may be that he had everything of the best : a beau-
tiful home, rich furniture, attentive servants, and all
the other adjuncts of a comfortable and honourable
position in society. He accepted all these as his due,
as a matter of course, as something to which he was
entitled. If any of them had been withheld, he would
have deemed himself aggrieved. He enters Religion ;
and he enters into himself He sees himself as he is,
at his true value, and accordingly reckons up his

II

98 The Teachi7ig of St. Benedict.

deserts. He has a bare whitewashed cell, a few mean
prints, a small bed, a chair, a desk, a few books, and
an image of the Crucified. He is clad in coarse
garments; he is his own servant, and the servant
of others ; he washes, and sweeps, and polishes, and
digs. This is all that is poorest and meanest. He is
content. He knows that he has received that which
is his due. In this way he is happy to be suffered to
live on for yet a few years, to blot out by penance
the handwriting that is against him, to endure a
little here, in order to escape that punishment which
would have been his, had not God opened his eyes
to his real state.

The Seventh Degree. — He who recognises his
defects and confesses them, who in consequence of
these deems himself unfit for important offices, and
who is content with that which is poorest and meanest,
will manifest this lowly opinion of himself in yet
another way — "he will in his very heart believe
himself to be most abject, and inferior to all." This
is the seventh degree of humility. At first sight this
seems to be impossible, for a good man cannot but
be conscious of his own integrity. He does not lie ;
he does not wrong his neighbour ; he leads a moral
life ; he strives to the utmost of his ability to serve
and to love God. At the same time he is not blind.
He looks around him and he sees all kinds of men :
one is deceitful ; another has not the Spirit of God
in him ; the venom of asps is under the lips of
another ; in another, faith is dead ; from another,
every particle of morality has departed. How, then,
can he with truth believe that he is the most abject

Of Humility. 9 9

and inferior to all? Yet this is what St. Paul, as
well as St. Benedict, requires him to do: " In humility^
let each esteem others better than himself."' Let us,
therefore, try to see how this can be done. A man's
character may be viewed from many different stand-
points, and it is from these that he may be seen in
such a light as to appear to us to be better than we
are. To all who look at him in a superficial sort of
way there may not appear to be in him anything
lovable. Yet are we not quite justified in thinking
that there may be some good quality hidden away in
his heart, and that we do not possess that very quality
which he has ? Therefore, in that respect, each of us
can say that he is inferior to that neighbour, who, in
so many other ways, appears to be unworthy of esteem.
But if it be impossible to discover in him any redeem-
ing quality, we shall be able, nevertheless, to put our-
selves beneath him by considering that if he had
received all the graces which God has bestowed upon
us, he would have made a better use of them and
have attained a higher degree of perfection than we
shall ever be able to attain. Besides, we can always
say to ourselves, " If that man is not now actually my
superior in virtue, he may at some future time far
surpass me, and win for himself a more glorious crown
in heaven." Again, if we examine into that sanctity
for which we deem ourselves to be his superiors, can
we not humble ourselves to the very dust when we
see it marred by so many and so glaring imperfections?
Hence it is that no matter how far advanced in holi-
ness any one may actually be, he may put himself

7 Phil. ii. 3.

ICO The Teaching of St, Benedict.

under the feet of all, and deem himself to be the
worst of sinners ; for, considering all these circum-
stances which we have put before you, he will not
magnify himself for that which is good and virtuous
in himself, but will say with St. Paul : " By the grace
of God, I am what I am/'

The Eighth Degree. — We are now brought by
this degree to consider in what way humility mani-
fests itself in actions. In the first place, it prevents
one who is filled with it from being in any way
singular in that which he does. In the words of St.
Benedict : " It causes the Monk to do nothing but
that which the common rule of the monastery or the
example of his seniors teacheth and exhorteth him to
do." To depart from the common rule, or to comply
with it in a way which is not sanctioned by the exam-
ple of the seniors, is, therefore, to be singular. To
.avoid this, two things are required : first, the observ-
ance of the common rule in the common way ;
secondly, the omission of nothing which is prescribed,
and among those things which are prescribed, the
preference of those which are common to the whole
community rather than of those which are peculiar
cither to self or to a limited few. By common 7'iile
we understand that which affects each member of
the monastic family. This prescribes common charity^
and sets its face against particular friendships, par-
ticular company, and conversation from which others
are excluded. The reason for this prohibition is that
any other line of conduct shows a degree of self-will
and of self-seeking which is indicative of pride. It
gives rise to scandal, discontent, jealousy, and un-

Of Humility. ""'^ loi

charitableness. Consequently, although in themselves
these friendships, conversations, and the rest, may be
without a shadow of sin on our part, yet we must not
use our liberty when that use of it would be detri-
mental to our neighbour. Common rule prescribes
also common substance. By this is meant that cloth-
ing, food, place of abode, furniture, and the rest, which
are common to the brotherhood. A true Religious
will studiously avoid singularity in each and in all
these particulars. He will not desire to have a habit
of finer stuff, nor of a different shape from that which
is worn by the rest of the community ; he will be
content with the same food, unless ill-health require
him to ask for more succulent fare ; he will not quar-
rel about the position of his cell, nor complain of its
scanty furniture. To be like his brethren in all these
respects will be the height of his ambition ; and if he
find that less is meted out to him than to the others,
he will rejoice that an opportunity is afforded him of
feeling the pressure of poverty. Besides common rule
and common substance, this degree of humility pre-
scribes common obedience also. By this is meant that
obedience is given to all Superiors and to all rules
alike. Human nature prompts men sometimes to
yield a more ready and more willing obedience to one
Superior than to another ; to affect the fulfilment of
a certain class of duties more than of certain others ;
to escape, if possible, coming under the jurisdiction of
one person rather than of another ; and to shirk all
unpalatable employments and offices. To do this is
to practise 2. pa^'tictilar^ and not a common^ obedience.
A more subtle and self-deceiving fault than this is to

I02 The Teaching of St. Be7iedict.

do more than the rule requires ; to rise, for instance,
half an hour before the rest ; to bow lower in the
choir; to spend a longer time in manual labour or in
mental prayer ; to keep silence when leave is given to
speak, &c. The remedy which St. Benedict suggests
is to imitate the elders of the monastery, who by
long exercise of all the virtues of the religious life
have learnt to keep the golden mean between indis-
creet fervour and dangerous laxity of observance.

The Ninth Degree. — Humility of heart shows
itself in the command which it gives the Religious over
his tongue. Hence St. Benedict assigns to this the
ninth step in the ladder of humility. It enables the
Monk to refrain from much speaking, to be silent
till he is questioned, and not to be moved with the
desire to lead and to shine in conversation. Also, it
teaches him never to be guilty of the vulgarity and
the rudeness of breaking in on another person's dis-
course. Our Holy Father points out two means by
which we may acquire this degree of humility. The
first is to bridle the tongue, and prevent it from speak-
ing too much ; the second is to wait till a question is
put to us. It is the disciple's place to listen, the
master's to speak and to teach.

The Eleventh Degree. — There is a logical
connection between the ninth and the eleventh degree
of humility. In order, therefore, to bring them into
close proximity with each other, St. Thomas departs
from the order observed by St. Benedict, and passes
from the ninth to the eleventh. The ninth treats of
bridling the tongue; the eleventh points out the means
which will effectively secure the thraldom of that

Of H^imility. 103

unquiet member to the power of the enlightened will.
These are, to speak gently and without laughter ;
humbly and with gravity ; in few words, with discre-
tion, and not in a loud tone of voice. All these con-
ditions will be found in one who has learnt to be
meek and humble of heart. He will speak with
gentleness, for " from the abundance of the heart the
mouth speaketh." He will deliver himself of that
which he has to say, without laughter and without
arrogance. His words will be grave, because they
will be well weighed before they pass his lips, and he
will part with them only as men part with their gold
and their silver. He remembers and acts upon the
sage counsel of Ecclesiastes : " Speak not anything
rashly, and let not thy heart be hasty to utter a
word before God. For God is in heaven, and thou
art upon earth. Therefore let thy words be few." ^
Moreover, to the best of his ability he endeavoureth
to imitate in this respect the conduct of the divine
model : " He did not cry out, neither did any one
hear His voice in the streets." ^

The Tenth Degree.— The virtue of humility,
burning like a powerful light in the sanctuary of the
heart, causes its luminous splendour to shine out
through the bodies of those who have been careful to
enshrine it within their bosoms. The first way in
which it does this is to repress that promptitude to
laugh which is so natural to man. We have already
spoken of laughter, when treating of the "Instruments
of Good Works," one of which is " not to speak words
which provoke to laughter ;" another, " not to love
8 Chap. V. I. ^ Isaias xlii. 2.

I04 The Teachiiig of St, Benedict.

much nor excessive laughter," for " the fool exalteth
his voice in laughter." From these words it is evident
that St. Benedict does not wholly exclude laughter
from the monastery, but only frequent and immoder-
ate laughter. To keep it within due bounds is the
object of this tenth degree. To do this is a mark or
sign of humility. For humility is modest, and one of
the effects of modesty is the repression of laughter.
Yet modesty is not morose, it does not frown down
all laughter, but banishes only that which is immo-
derate. It cannot endure the loud, unrestrained,
offensive roar, which peals from the open throat of an
underbred, unmannerly man ; nor can it tolerate that
ill-timed, misplaced merriment, which is as incon-
gruous as joyous music amid the lamentations which
are sung over the dead. Therefore humility places a
curb upon the risible faculties, and suffers them to
enjoy only a restricted liberty, at due times and in
due measure. To laugh in this way is commendable
and decorous. For our various faculties were given
to us by God to be used with that moderation which
right reason and the divine law sanction. We are
not always to laugh, nor always to abstain from
laughter. There is a time and a place for each of
these. Our own good sense will point out to us both
the one and the other. When the time for laughter,,
and the place for indulging in it, present themselves,
humility will gently restrain us, and make us temper-
ate in our use of that in which it would ill become
those persons to indulge without restraint, who pro-
fess to be followers of Him Who was oftener seen to
weep than to laugh.

Of Humility. 105

The Twelfth Degree. — The second way in
which humility manifests its presence in the outward
behaviour of the body is by the restraint which it
puts upon all its motions, and particularly by the
guard which it sets over the eyes. St. Benedict tells
us that it causes him who is animated by it to imagine
himself at every moment as being about to be
ushered into the presence of the great Judge, to give
an account of his stewardship. It becomes, in a
certain sense, his soul, his animating principle ; and
just as we are able to judge of the character of the
soul which informs the body, by the impress of itself
which it stamps upon the man's bodily presence, so
are we able to judge of the humility which dwells in
a man's heart, by the outward behaviour of the body.
As we pass men in the streets, we can see the soul,
in a certain degree, which looks out through their
eyes, and mirrors itself in their faces. Upon one, wc
see the impress of the soul which has passed through
the deluge of sorrow. Upon another, we see all the
marks of a sour and sullen disposition. Poverty has
pinched and stamped another with all its rough, hard
lines. As the self-sufficient, vain, empty-headed
youth meets us, we see the self-complacency of his
soul in the smirk with which he courts our admira-
tion. Lewdness flashes out upon us through the
saucy stare of that other young man's lascivious eyes.
The soul within has stamped itself upon the outward
man. In like m.anner, when the soul is filled with
humility, it will imprint the outward characteristics of
humility upon a man's bearing. His head will be
bent ; his eyes will be downcast ; his footstep slow ;

io6 The TeacJmig of St. Benedict.

his voice soft and low. His memory is full of the
thought that he has offended God. He is in daily
and in hourly expectation of His judgment. He
verifies in his own person those words of the Wise
Man : " A man is known by his look, and a wise man
when thou meetest him is known by his countenance.
The attire of the body, and the laughter of the teeth,
and the gait of a man show what he is." ^^ Thus the
outward manifestations of humility are seen in the
repressing of all haughtiness in look and in bearing,
and in the checking of all unseemly joy, which usually
betrays itself by unrestrained laughter. He who
shall persevere day by day in striving to ascend these
various steps or degrees, till he have at last succeeded
in firmly planting his feet upon the topmost round,
will presently come to that love of God which is
perfect, from which all fear has been purged away.
He will then observe every jot and tittle of God's
law, not now through the dread of punishment, but
through the filial love of an obedient and affectionate
child. He will walk in the way of God's command-
ments, as it were, naturally and without any painful
efforts. The fear of hell will now no longer be the
chief support of his tottering steps, but the love of
God, the charm of virtue, and the good habits
acquired by laborious self-repression. Such will be
the outcome of the Holy Spirit's work in the heart
of him who has been cleansed by God from his
defects and sins.

1^ Cap. xix. 26.

The Night Office: 107

CHAPTER VIII.

THE NIGHT OFFICE.

The liturgical portion of the Rule begins with
this chapter and ends with the twentieth, inclusively.
In these thirteen chapters St. Benedict gives instruc-
tions concerning the manner in which the Divine
Office is to be said. The first four regulate the
Night Office, the number of Psalms which are to be
recited during the course of it, the manner in which
it is to be said during the summer months, and on
Sundays. The next two deal with the celebration
of Lauds on Sundays and on weekdays. The follow-
ing chapter is devoted to the arrangement of Matins
on Saints' days. Then there comes a chapter which
points out at what times, and in what parts of the
Office, " Alleluia '' has to be said. The three chapters
which succeed legislate for the manner in which the
day-hours are to be celebrated, fix the number of
Psalms which are to be recited during each, and
point out in what order these Psalms are to said
on each succeeding day. The last two chapters of
this liturgical group deal with the discipline to be
observed in psalmody, and with the reverence which
must be shown during the service of the Divine
Office.

Division of the Year. — Instead of dividing
the year into four equal parts, as we do at the present
day, St. Benedict divided it into two, that is to say,
winter and summer. Winter extended from the ist

io8 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

of November — or from the Sunday which was nearest
the 1st — until the feast of Easter; summer began
with that feast, and ended on the ist of November.

" Sound Calculation." — Some interpreters
explain the words juxta considerationein rationis to
mean — taking into account the infirmities of differ-
ent people. But we think, with Perez, that the ren-
dering of this phrase which is given in the text is
more in accordance with the whole tenor of the chapter.
For as our Holy Father is determining the hour at
which the Monks are to rise, and as the nights are of
unequal length at different seasons of the year, it is
but rational to expect that the " eighth hour " must
needs be determined by sound or rational calculation.
For at the solstice, that is to say, on the 2 ist Decem-
ber, it would be later than at the equinox, that is to
say, on the 2ist March.

Easter. — In the early ages of Christianity there
were two modes of celebrating the great solemnity of
Easter. The Roman Church and the vast majority
of the faithful, following the practice of St. Peter
and of St. Paul, kept the festival on the first Sunday
which followed the fourteenth day of the moon of the
vernal equinox. In Asia, however, the Christians,
appealing to the authority and the practice of the
Beloved Disciple, observed the feast on the same
day upon which it was celebrated by the Jews, that is
to say, on the fourteenth day of the moon of the
vernal equinox, no matter whether that day fell on
the Sunday or did not. Hence they were called
" Quartodecimans." When St. Polycarp came to
Rome about A.D. i6o, he discussed the matter with Pope

The Ni^ht Office. 109

Anicetus, but no agreement was arrived at, and each
party was left to follow its own custom. In the year
190 the question was again opened between Pope
Victor and Polycrates of Ephesus ; and, had it not
been for the intervention of St. Irenseus, the Asiatic
party would have been excommunicated by the Holy
See. The matter was finally settled in the year 325,
at the Council of Nicaea, which, besides confirming
the practice of the Roman Church, drew up the method
of computation by which the feast of Easter was in
future to be determined. St. Benedict followed the
Roman method of computing and of keepinp- Easter.
" The Eighth Hour." — In order to understand
what St. Benedict means by the eighth hour of the
night, we must remember that he divided the day and
the night into twelve . hours. The day consisted of
twelve hours, and the night consisted of twelve hours.
Only twice in the year were these hours of equal
length, that is to say, at the spring and the autumnal
equinox. In winter, the hours of the night were
much longer than those of the day ; and in summer,
the hours of the day were much longer than those of
the night. Hence, in winter, the eighth hour of the
night would be about two o'clock ; in summer, the
eighth hour would not be much past midnight. It is
the opinion of the commentators that in spring and
in autumn the brethren were awakened at the middle
of the eighth hour, and that the last signal for Matins
was given when that eighth hour was complete; that is
to say, they were awakened at half-past one, and went
to the church at two, which is then the eighth hour;
but in December, as the nights are then longer, they

1 1 o The Teaching of St. Benedict.

would be awakened at half-past two, and would begin
Matins at three, which then would be the eighth hour
of the night ; for in December a night hour would
be equal to an hour and a half of the day. Conse-
quently, the hour for rising in summer-time would be
much earlier than in winter ; but, nevertheless, it was
the eighth hour of the night, for the hours are then
shorter.

Study. — Meditatio and meditari in the Latinity
of St. Benedict's day did not mean that mental prayer
to which the word " meditation " is now almost exclu-
sively applied, but had a wider significance, and was
used to indicate study, learning by heart, recitation,
speaking. By assigning to study the time which inter-
vened between the end of the Matin service and the
beginning of Lauds, St. Benedict gave leisure to those
who had but recently come to religious life to learn
to read and to write ; to commit to memory the
Psalter, which in the choir they had to recite by
heart ; to prepare the lessons which had to be read in
the Divine Office ; to study the Holy Scripture, the
Fathers, and to give themselves up to other pur-
suits of a like character. It is evident from the Rule
that there was no fixed time for the exercise of medi-
tation or mental prayer, as the whole life of a Monk
was deemed to be given up to communion with
God. After the completion of the Divine Office, some
short time was devoted to this purpose. Then the
signal was given for all to leave the oratory, and
after that, those who pleased might return to pray.

Matins. — The Latin word used for this by St.
Benedict is vigilice or the " night watches ;" Matins

The Psalms at the Night Office.

1 1 1

were so called because they were celebrated during
the night-hours.

Lauds. — The Latin word for this canonical hour,
which is now usually joined with Matins, and is con-
sidered with them to constitute one hour, is matuthii,
because Lauds are usually said in the early morning
at break of day.

CHAPTER IX.

THE NUMBER OF PSALMS TO BE SAID AT
THE NIGHT OFFICE.

Divine Office. — St. Benedict was the first to
introduce into the. Office the verse, " O God, incline
unto mine aid." This opening of the service of praise
was adopted by St. Gregory, and by his authority was
extended to the whole Church. Nothing is said by
our Holy Father about the " Gloria Patri " and the
" Alleluia," which at the present day are said after
the " Deus in adjutorium ;" nor about the " Laus Tibi
Domine Rex seternae gloriae," which at certain
seasons of the year takes the place of the " Alleluia.''
In his time it is likely that these were not part of the
opening verses of the Office. After the " Deus in ad-
jutorium," he orders that the verse, " O Lord, Thou
wilt open my lips, and my mouth shall declare Thy
praise," be three times repeated, to honour, no doubt,
the most Holy Trinity, and to remind us of the ardent
zeal with which we should give our whole heart to the
praise and the worship of God. Then follows the

112

The Teaching of St. Benedict.

third Psalm, which was probably introduced into this
part of the Office because of the verse : " I have slept
and have taken my rest ; and I have risen up because
the Lord hath protected me."

Gloria Patrl— At the end of the third Psalm
the " Gloria Patri " is ordered to be said ; and in chap-
ters xiii. and xvii. directions are given for saying it
at the termination of every Psalm during the Divine
Office. It is generally believed that this verse was
made by the Apostles, or by those who immediately
succeeded them. The Fathers of the Nicene Council,^
in order to counteract the impiety of the Arians, who
denied the divinity and the eternity of the Son of God,
added the words : " As it was in the beginning, is now,
and ever shall be, world without end. Amen." St.
Benedict puts it into the mouths of his children, as a
preservative against that detestable heresy, which was
still rife even in his day. It will be noticed that when-
ever he orders a long Psalm to be divided, a " Gloria
Patri " is added at the end of each division. But
whenever two short Psalms are joined together, only
one " Gloria Patri " is added at the end of the Psalms

thus united.

The Invitatory. — The ninety-third Psalm,
which follows immediately after the third, is called
the Invitatory, because it invites or calls us to praise
and to worship God. This was always said with an
antiphon, and on great solemnities was sung also
with an antiphon. The manner in which this is
either said or sung is as follows. The Antiphoner or
Cantor first either says or sings the whole antiphon.

1 A.D. 325.

The Psalms at the Night Office. 113

This is then taken up by the choir. When the choir
has either said or sung the whole antiphon, the Anti-
phoner says the first verse of the Psalm, after which
the, whole antiphon is repeated. After the second
verse, only half the antiphon is said ; after the third,
the whole antiphon ; and so on alternately till the
end of the Psalm.

Antiphon. — This word is composed of two Greek
words, avTi, against, and 0w vrj, voice, as if to signify voice
against voice, or voice echoing voice. Therefore an
antiphon is some verse or text which one choir takes
up, and the other choir repeats. Or it is a verse or
text which one choir repeats in answer to the verse
of the Psalm which is either said or sung by the oppo-
site choir. Whenever St. Benedict in his Rule says
that the Psalms are to be sung or to be said with
antiphons, it is in this way that they were recited.
Either the Cantors said one verse of the Psalm, which
the rest of the choir repeated after them, or they said
the verses, after each of which the choir repeated the
antiphon, much in the same way in which we now
say the " Invitatory." The hundred and thirty-fifth
Psalm will give any one who wishes to examine it a
very good idea of what is meant by saying the Psalms
with antiphons. If we take the words, " For His
mercy endureth for ever," as the Antiphon, we shall
see that while one choir said, " Praise ye the Lord,
for He is good," the other replied all through the
Psalm, '' for His mercy endureth for ever. ' The
words of St. Benedict, when directing the Invitatory
to be said in this " intercalated " manner, may be
taken to signify either that the Invitatory was to

I

114 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

be said with an antiphon, and if the antiphon was
omitted, was to be sung ; or that the Invitatory was
to be sung whether the antiphon was said with it
or not.

The Hymn. — Our Holy Father in this passage
calls the hymn ''' Ambrosianuml' either because most
of the hymns used by him in the Divine Office were
composed by St. Ambrose, or because they were intro-
duced into the service of the Church in the time of
that illustrious Bishop. In our Breviaries at the
present day there are many hymns which were com-
posed by other authors ; these also would, no doubt,
be called by St. Benedict ^"^ Ambrosiani!' It may be
of interest to some to know which of the hymns at
present in use among us belong to St. Ambrose, and
which are the productions of other writers. For this
purpose we will give after the name of each author
the hymns which are attributed to him.

St. Ambrose. — JEteme renini Conditor — Sunday
at Lauds. Splendor paternce gloricE — Monday at Lauds.
j^terne Christi inunera — feast of Apostles and of
Martyrs at Matins. Somno 7xfecto artubus — Monday
at Matins. Censors paterni luniinis — Tuesday at
Matins. O Lux beata Trinitas — Saturday at Vespers.
The following are said to have been written by St.
Ambrose : Jam lucis orto sidere — at Prime. Nunc
Sancte nobis Spiritus — at Tierce. Rector potens verax
Deus — at Sext. Rerum Deus tenax vigor — at None.
Conditor Alme siderum — Vespers in Advent.^ Audi
benigne Conditor — Vespers in Lent. Vexilla Regis —

' -■■ 2 In the days of St. Ambrose, the time of Advent was not
observed by the Church.

The Psalms at the Night Office. 1 1 5

Passiontide. To St. Ambrose also are attributed the
hymns which we say on ferial or week days at Matins,
Lauds, and Vespers.

St. Gregory. — Primo dierum omnium — Sunday
at Matins in winter. Node sjirgentes — Sunday at
Matins in summer. Eccejam noctis tenuatur umbra —
Sunday at Lauds in summer. Lucis Creator optima
— Sunday at Vespers. Audi benigne Conditor — Sun-
days in Lent at Vespers.

Prudentius. — This writer, who was born in Spain
A.D. 348, was almost a contemporary of St. Benedict's.
The following hymns were written by him : A lis diet

nuntius — Tuesday at Lauds. Nox et tenebrce et nubila

*

— Wednesday at Lauds. Lux ecce surgit aurea —
Thursday at Lauds. O Sola ^magnarum urbium — the
Epiphany at Lauds. Quiciunque Christum quceritis
— the Transfiguration. Audit tyrannus anxius and
Salveteflores martyrum — Holy Innocents.

Sedulius — A poet who flourished in the fifth
century. Only two hymns written by him are used
in the Benedictine Breviary : A solis ortus cardiue
— Lauds of Christmas Day ; Hostis Herodes impie —
Epiphany at Vespers.

Venantius Fortunatus was Bishop of Poic-
tiers, and died A.D. 600. He composed the following
hymns which are used by us : Pange lingua gloriosi^
prcElium certaminis — Passion Sunday at Matins ; Lus-
tris sex qui jam peraetis^FdiSsion Sunday at Lauds.
He is the reputed author of Vexilla Regis.

Peter the Deacon composed the hymn, Ut
queant taxis, \Nh\c\i is sung on the Nativity of St. John
the Baptist The first syllable of each line in the

1 16 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

first strophe of this hymn gives the name to the notes

of the gamut :

" Ut queant laxis,
7?^sonare fibris,
Mix2i gestorum,
FamuW tuorum,
SolvQ polluti,
Lahii reatum,
.S^^ncte Joannes."

Elpis, the wife of the Senator Boetius, composed
the two hymns, Aurea luce et deceive roseo and Jam
bone pastor Petre, which are sung on the feast of SS^
Peter and Paul.

Peter the Venerable, Abbot of Clugny : Inter
ceternas superum coronas — feast of St. Benedict at
Lauds. Jesii corona celsior — author unknown. Vent
Creator Spiritus — Charlemagne ; also Gregory the
Great.

Body of the Divine Office. After the hymn
there followed six Psalms, which were said with anti-
phons. These antiphons were said either between
every verse of the Psalms, or at fixed intervals after
several verses.

The Verse or Versicle is a short prayer at
the end of the psalmody, an uplifting of the heart, a
sort of ejaculation ; it is not necessarily a prayer, in
the sense of being a petition, but sometimes is a short
act of praise or of blessing.

The Blessing. — In the Office such as we have it
at the present day, the Abbot, or whosoever presides
in the choir, says the " Pater noster " immediately
after the versicle, and then gives what is called the
absolution or short prayer. After this the Lector

The Psalms at the Night Office. 1 1 7

says: "Jube Domne benedicere," and then the Abbot
gives the blessing. This has been the custom for
many centuries. But in St. Benedict's day, and after-
wards, the " Pater noster " was not said, and only one
blessing was given for all the lessons. At the present
time a blessing is given before each of them.

All being seated. — From these words, and from
others which are to be found in the sixtieth and in
the sixty-third chapter, it is evident that the Monks
stood during the recitation of the Psalms, and sat only
at the lessons. But in this respect the discipline of
various monasteries was not uniform. The Psalms,
owing to the scarcity of books, were usually recited
by heart, and only the lessons were read from the
book which lay upon the analogium or reading-desk.
These lessons were not read, as at the present day, by
one person ; but for each of them there was a differ-
ent lector, the brethren taking their turns in this duty.

ResponsorY. — This derives its name from respon-
deo^ I answer. It follows immediately after the lesson,
and anszvers^ by the sentiments which it expresses,
that which has just been read. This close connec-
tion between the lesson and the responsory is to be
noticed now only in the responsories which are read on
the Sundays of Advent and of Lent. In the modern
Breviary the sentiments to which they give utterance
refer mainly to the feast which is celebrated, and not
to the lesson which precedes. To the last respon-
sory a " Gloria Patri '' is added, previously to which
all arise, and then profoundly bow, in order to testify
their reverence for the mystery of the most Holy
Trinity. The expositions on sacred Scripture which

1 1 8 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

were read during the Divine Office, St. Benedict
required to be taken from the writings of those Fathers
who were most famous ^ orthodox^ and Catholic. Those
who in his day were considered to fulfil these condi-
tions were St. Leo, St. Ambrose, St. Jerome, St. Augus-
tine, and Origen. As the names of these writers were,
as often as not, never prefixed to the "Extracts " which
were thus made for the use of the choir, it came to pass
that in the process of time the Monks did not know
whose were the writings which were read to them.
At the command of Charlemagne, Alcuin collected
together these Homilies, and assigned them to their
real authors, dividing them into two parts, one of
which was used for the summer and the other for the
winter Office. In the second Nocturn there were six
Psalms. The "Alleluia" of which our Holy Father
speaks was very probably said as a sort of antiphon
at the beginning of the first Psalm and at the end of
the sixth. After these came a short lesson from the
Apostle, which was said by heart, and the Matin
service was then brought to a close by the supplica-
tion of the Litany, ix. by the " Kyrie eleison.''

It is evident from the last paragraph of this
chapter that the two Nocturns of which St. Benedict
speaks were not divided, but were said one imme-
diately after the other. But both before St. Benedict's
time and after it, there were monasteries in which
they were separated the one from the other. This,
however, was not the custom generally in use.

Celebration of Night Office in Stimvier. 1 1 9
CHAPTER X.

CELEBRATION OF NIGHT OFFICE IN SUMMER.

In summer the lessons were omitted, in order
that Lauds might begin at break of day ; for if these
lessons had been read, it would have been broad
daylight before the Matin Office was finished. The
number of Psalms, however, remained the same.
" Twelve " seems to have been a sacred number among
the early Religious ; for we find that in Africa and
throughout the whole Western Church, as well as in
Egypt and all through the East, this was the number
of Psalms ordered to be either said or chanted at the
night Office. In all likelihood, this number was
fixed in consequence of the vision vouchsafed to a
community of Egyptian Monks. While they were
engaged in the " work of God," an angel appeared in
the midst of them, and after reciting twelve Psalms,
vanished from their sight. St. Pachomius, who at
that time ruled this community, thereupon ordained
that this number should be retained both in the day
and in the night Office.

We think it very likely, from what is said in
the ninth chapter and in the eleventh chapter, that
the Office was partly recited and partly sung by
the Monks over whom our Holy Father ruled. For
the first three centuries after the Apostolic age, the
Psalms were probably said in a monotone. But
about the middle of the third century, Harmonius, the
son of Bardesanes of Edessa in Syria, began to set
his heretical dogmas to music, and thus rapidly spread

J 20 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

them among the people. To meet this new method
of propagating error, St. Ephrem composed hymns,
and had them set to music. In these metrical and
musical compositions he put forth the true Catholic
doctrine, and very soon had the satisfaction of seeing
them taken up by the people. In this way falsehood
was vanquished by the very weapons which it had
devised for fighting its way into the hearts of the
faithful. From that date began the practice of
chanting the Psalms ; and there can be little doubt
that St. Benedict, who knew what a salutary power
there is in music for stilling the tempest of the
passions, and for exciting all the devotional feelings
of the soul, eagerly adopted it, and introduced it into
the choral service, which he imposed upon his chil-
dren as one of the greatest duties which they had to
perform.

CHAPTER XL

CELEBRATION OF NIGHT OFFICE ON SUNDAYS.

More seasonably. — By reason of the greater
length of the Office, the Monks had to rise at an
earlier hour than usual. Those who ordinarily rose
for Matins at midnight would probably rise for the
Sunday's Office at eleven o'clock ; those who rose at
two would rise at one o'clock, and thus have the
Matin service over in order to begin Lauds at the
prescribed time, that is to say, at daybreak.

Sung {inodulatis), — The Psalms were sung in a
certain measured and harmonious chant.

Celebration of Night Office on Sundays. 121

Orderly Manner. — By this is meant that each
person was to sit, not at haphazard, and wherever he
could find a seat, but in that order which was due to
his dignity, office, and date of profession. The Abbot
sat first ; next to him the priests ; then the Provosts,
the Deans, and the brethren. At the end of the
fourth responsory, as soon as the Cantor began the
" Gloria Patri," all are gently, modestly, and rever-
entially to rise from the low stools or the benches on
which they were seated, and humbly to bow, and thus
do reverence to the most Holy Trinity.

Canticle. — All the Psalms are truly canticles ;
but some persons make a distinction between a psalm
and a canticle, and say that whereas the Psalms were
sung to the accompaniment of musical instruments,
the canticles were sung by the voice only. A canticle
is defined to be " a pious poetical work, written by
the Prophets, or by men illuminated by the Holy
Spirit, to commemorate some memorable event." In
the prophet Isaias, canticles are to be found in chaps.
5, 12, 25, 26, 35, 40, 54, 60, 63; in Jeremias, the
lamentations over King Josias and the city of Jeru-
salem ; in Ezechiel, the lament over the Kings of
Juda\ Moses sang a canticle in thanksgiving for the
passage through the Red Sea ; Debora and Barach,
after slaying Sisara ; Anna, after the birth of Samuel ;
Ezechias, after recovering from his mortal illness ;
Tobias, on regaining his sight ; Judith, after slaying
Holofernes ; our Lady, after the salutation of Eliza-
beth ; Simeon, after beholding in his arms the infant
form of our Saviour; Zachary, on regaining his speech.

^ Chap, xix.

12 2 The Teaching of St* Benedict.

Other Four Lessons out of the New Testa-
ment. These were evidently not taken from the
Gospel, because our Holy Father expressly orders all
to stand while the Gospel is read, and the Abbot to
read that lesson. For many centuries the Abbots
have ceased to do this, except upon the great feasts,
just as the Bishops have ceased to sing the Masses in
their cathedral churches, except on certain high
festivals. The office of reading the Gospel has been
given to the priest whose turn it is to lead the choir
for the week.

Te Deum. — Before St. Benedict's time, the Gloria
in excelsis was usually sung upon all occasions of
solemn thanksgiving. But from the date of his mon-
astic legislation the Te Deum began to take its place.
The tradition which assigns this hymn to the joint
authorship of St. Ambrose and of St. Augustine is
now regarded by all scholars as a fable. According
to a trustworthy authority,^ the earliest mention that
is made of it is in the Rules of St. Benedict, and of
Tiridius, nephew of St. Cesarius of Aries. It has
been attributed to St. Abundius, to Nicetius Bishop of
Treves, and to St. Hilary of Poictiers. Although it
is absolutely impossible to fix with certainty its true
author, yet public opinion has usually assigned it to
St. Ambrose. Our Holy Father, as we see in the
Rule, orders his children to sing during the Divine
Office the hymns of this great Bishop. Now, as St.
Ambrose wrote many of these in strict metrical form
for the use of the learned, it is not at all unlikely that
he may have written the Te Deum in a sort of loose
2 Menard, Annot. in S. Gregorii Sacrament.

Celebration of Night Office on Sundays, 123

manner for the use of the common people. In the
sentiments to which the composition gives expression
there is nothing out of keeping with his character, or
his style, or his teaching ; but every word of it tends
to impress upon the mind the doctrine of the great
mystery of the Holy Trinity.

The Gospel.— After the Te Deitm, the Abbot is
ordered to read the Gospel, and while he is doing
this the rest stand in reverential fear. This custom
seems to have come down to us from the Apostolic
age, and is, at one and the same time, a public mani-
festation of respect for the word of God, and a sign
of our readiness to carry into effect the lessons which
it inculcates. At the end of the Gospel the choir
answers " Amen," which is an assent to all the truths
which the Gospel teaches, and an approbation of the
morality which it enforces. The Abbot then goes on
with the hymn, Te decet laus ; but according to the
rite in use at the present day, it is the choir which
says this, and when it is finished the Abbot gives a
blessing, and straightway begins Lauds. From this
we gather that the interval between Matins and Lauds,
of which mention is made in the preceding chapter,
was not conceded to the Monks on these Sundays.

The Blessing. — What is this blessing, which the
Abbot is to give at the end of Matins ? In all likeli-
hood it is another name for the collect or prayer,
which from the beginning of the Order was always
said at this time. For our Holy Father, in another
part of the Rule, uses this word ''blessing'' to signify
prayer. Thus, when speaking of the prayer which is
said for those who are to begin their task in the

124 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

kitchen, and for him who is to read during the week,
he calls it a " blessing!' Moreover, all the blessings
given by the priests in the Old Dispensation, and those
which are invoked by the priests of the New, are in
reality prayers. Hence we may safely conclude that
the blessing of which he here speaks is the prayer
which is usually said at the conclusion of Matins.

The Lessons. — The length of these lessons de-
pended upon the will of him who happened to pre-
side in choir. When it seemed to him that a suffi-
cient amount had been read, he said " Tu autem,"
and the Lector then ended the lesson by the words
•* Miserere nobis." But, generally speaking, it was
the business of the official Cantor, on the preceding
evening, to mark the place at which each lesson was
to end. It is probable that during these the reader
did not stand, but sat. In the Rule of St. Cesarius
and of St. Fereolus it is expressly stated that he is
to sit during the reading of the lessons ; and in
order to prevent those who had to listen from falling
asleep, they were permitted to do some work, such,
for instance, as spinning the cords out of which the
mats were made. On Sundays, when all manual
labour was strictly prohibited, those who felt inclined
to sleep were ordered to stand.

Shortening the Office. — St. Benedict speaks
of shortening the Office, if the Monks should not
have risen " more seasonably " for Matins. This was
done either by curtailing the notes to which the
responsories were sung, or by reciting them straight
on, without any repetition. He through whose fault
the brethren were not called in time for the Office

Celebration of Latids. 1 2 5

did penance in the oratory for the fault which he had
committed. The manner in which he did this was
left to the discretion of the Abbot. In all probability
his penance consisted either in bowing or in pros-
trating himself on the ground before the altar till the
signal was given by the Abbot, or by the person who
presided in choir, to rise from this lowly posture.

CHAPTER XII.

CELEBRATION OF LAUDS.

Lauds. — As we have already noted in a preced-
ing chapter, the word which St. Benedict uses to
indicate Lauds is Matutini, and he so calls Lauds
because they were said in the early morning.

Straight on. — The sixty-sixth Psalm is ordered
to be said without an antiphon, and not as the Veriite
is said at the beginning of Matins, with the antiphon
following each verse. The words of the Latin text
are rendered in our translation by the words " straight
on " {in directiuii). This, according to Thomasi, was
to sing, not in alternate choirs, as was usually done,
but collectively, the whole choir uniting in the chant.
But the general belief is that the phrase in directum
means to recite the Psalm, not to chant it in the inter-
calated manner in which the Venite is either said or
sung. Nothing whatever is said about beginning
Lauds, as the other hours are begun, by the verse
" Deus in adjutorium." Hence it is the opinion of
some that it was not said before Lauds, as the open-

1 2 6 The Teaching of St, Benedict.

ing verses of the sixty-sixth Psalm express the same
prayer that is contained in the '' Deus in adjutorium."
But the custom of saying this verse before Lauds, as
well as before the other hours, has prevailed, and
with some few exceptions has always prevailed.

By ordering the fiftieth Psalm to be said with
" Alleluia " as an antiphoh, we may conclude either
that it was repeated after each verse of the Psalm, or,
what is more probable, that the rest of the Psalms at
Lauds were sung to the tone in which the " Alleluia "
was chanted. In the Breviary published by order of
Paul v., one " Alleluia '' is said before the fiftieth
Psalm and two at the end of the sixty-second. Before
the Benedicite and after it the antiphon "Tres pueri"
is said. At the beginning and at the end of the
Laudate^ three "Alleluias."

" The Blessings." — By these, St. Benedict means
the Benedicite^ each verse of which begins with the
words, " Bless ye the Lord."

" The Praises." — These are the three Psalms,^ of
which almost every verse begins with the words,
*' Praise ye the Lord."

The Lesson from the Apocalypse was ordered
to be said by heart, and then followed a responsory,
at the end of which St. Benedict does not order a
" Gloria Patri " to be recited, as he does at the end of
the last responsory of the lessons. It is presumed,
however, that it was said at the end of this respon-
sory also.

Canticle from the Gospel. — There are four
Canticles in the Gospel : the Magnificat^ the Nunc
1 Ps, cxlviii., cxlix., cl.

Celebi'-ation of Lattds on Weekdays. i2y

dimittis^ the Benedictiis^ and the Gloria in excelsis.
Although it is not stated which of these was said, yet
the practice of the Roman Church has been to recite
the Benedichts ; and it is thought that St. Benedict
followed this rite, especially as he orders his Monks
in one chapter of the Rule to follow it in a certain
particular.

The Litanies.— By this is meant the " Kyrie
eleison." With this supplication Lauds were ended ;
for no mention whatever is made of the collect or
prayer which now is said at the end of every hour.
We will examine this matter farther on in chapter
xviii.

CHAPTER XIII.

CELEBRATION OF LAUDS ON FERIAL OR WEEK DAYS.

More slowly. — It must be borne in mind that
on weekdays there was an interval between Matins
and Lauds ; hence this order to say slowly the Deus
"inisereatur, that time might be allowed for those who
were late to be in their places for the beginning of
the Miserere^ which was said with an antiphon, as
before explained.

Order of Psalms. — It will be seen that St.
Benedict does not give the Psalms in succession, but
passes from the fifth to the thirty-fifth, &c. The
reason why he selected these particular Psalms for
Lauds is supposed to be because in them reference
is made to the dawn of day and to the resurrection.
The Miserere was probably ordered to be said every

1 28 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

day at this time because of the words " Domine labia
mea aperies ;" and of those others, "et exultabunt ossa
humiliata," which refer to the resurrection.

The Canticle of Deuteronomy. — This is the
Canticle Aiidite coeli qtice loquor^ which is said in the
Roman Church every Saturday, but without any
division. St. Benedict differs from the usage of the
Church, in that he orders this long Psalm to be divided.
But on the other days of the week he orders the same
canticles to be said which are prescribed by the
Roman Church.

Celebration of Lauds. — The word agenda is
thus translated ; but in this place it is a substantive,
signifying service, office, celebratio7i.

Our Father is recited aloud at the end of Lauds
and of Vespers, in order that the brethren, reminded
by the compact which is in this prayer of receiving
pardon on condition of granting it to those who have
either offended or injured them, may pluck out of
their hearts and out of their lives the thorns of scan-
dals which spring up through contention, anger, envy,
and the like. In the other hours, only the last part
is said aloud, that all may answer, " But deliver us
from evil," and by so doing may signify the concord
and the unity of heart which reign among them.
From this we may conclude that no other prayer or
collect followed this response, but that the hour was
ended by the Lord's Prayer.

Celebration of Matins on Saints Days. 129

CHAPTER XIV.

CELEBRATION OF MATINS ON SAINTS' DAYS.

Saints' Days.— It is thus we render the words
"' in natahtiisl' of which the Hteral meaning is " on
the birthdays of the Saints." The day of a Saint's
death is called his birthday, for then only does he
begin to live. By these words of St. Benedict we
are reminded to regard our present life as a living
death, and our true life that which we shall live
beyond the grave.

Festivals and Solemnities.— Though these
words are now used synonymously, yet it is thought
that St. Benedict applied the word festival to the
Saints' days, and the word solemnity to the feast-days
celebrated in honour of our Lord.

Proper to the Day.— There are two opinions
about the meaning of these words. The first is, that
the Psalms, antiphons, lessons, &c., were proper to
the festival or to the solemnity which was celebrated.
The second is, that the Psalms, &c., were proper to the
ferial days on which the festival or the solemnity was
celebrated. Custom, which is the best interpreter of
laws, has given its sanction to the first of these
opinions.

Their Number.— J/i?^//i- is often taken in this
sense. From the fact of the number of Psalms, les-
sons, and Canticles being the same on the feasts and
the solemnities as on the Sundays, it is evident that
there was no Office of the Saints consisting of three

K

130 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

lessons. Yet the custom of having these three
lessons is very ancient ; so ancient, in fact, that the
origin of it cannot be ascertained.

CHAPTER XV.

WHEN "ALLELUIA" MUST BE SAID.

Alleluia. — This is a Hebrew word signifying
"Praise ye the Lord." Tobias^ prophesied that it
would be sung through the streets. Epiphanius says
that the Prophet Agga^us, 517 years before Christ,
was the first among men to sing this joyous word of
praise, when he beheld the structure of the new
Temple.

Always. — This usage of always saying "Alle-
luia" during Paschal-time sharply marks it off from
the other seasons of the year, during which it was not
always said in the way indicated in the Rule. During
Paschal-time it was said in the antiphons, the respon-
sories, the versicles, and the Psalms. In these last,
"Alleluia" was said either at the beginning and at
the end, or after each verse, in the intercalated manner
of which mention has already been made in a preced-
ing chapter.

From Pentecost till Lent. — The Roman
Church ceases to sing " Alleluia " from Septuagesima
Sunday. This was probably ordered by St. Gregory.
But in St. Benedict's day there was no law which
forbade the use of " Alleluia " in Septuagesima. In

^ Chap. xiii.

Celebration of the Day Office. 131

the Ambrosian Rite it is still sung until Lent.
Except during this holy season, " Alleluia " was sung
on all Sundays with the Canticles, and at Lauds',
Prime, Tierce, Sext, and None. The reason why
"Alleluia" is not said during Lent is probably because
there is annexed to it the idea of joy and of exulta-
tion, which would be incongruous during a season of
penance and of mourning.

Responsories.— " Alleluia " was not sung with
these, except during Paschal-time, that is, from Easter
till the octave of Pentecost The Roman Church,
however, sings "Alleluia" in the responsories of
Corpus Christi, of the Transfiguration, of Christmas,
and of the Epiphany.

CHAPTER XVL

CELEBRATION OF THE DAY OFFICE.

Seven Times.— Both before St. Benedict's day
and after it there were many who observed this way
of praising God. Among these we may mention St.
Basil, St. Aurelian, Cassian, Cassiodorus, and St. Isi-
dore of Seville. But St. Benedict was the first to
prescribe the recitation of the hours. Lauds, Prime,
Tierce, Sext, None, Vespers, and Compline. The
night-watches are not counted in this number. These
vigilicB or night-watches are now called Matins.
Speaking of them, he says : " In the night let us rise
to confess to Him." At the present day Matins with
Lauds are counted as one hour.

132 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

Sacred Number. — " Seven " was regarded as a
sacred number, because of its frequent use in Holy-
Scripture. Thus we find the seven days of creation ;
the seven days of unleavened bread ; the seven days
of the consecration of priests ; the seven days of a
leper's purification ; the seven days during which the
army marched round the walls of Jericho ; the seven
angels of the Apocalypse ; the seven Churches ; the
seven-branched candlestick ; the seven trumpets ; the
seven gifts of the Holy Ghost ; the seven times in
which the prophet praised the Lord.

Prime — This hour was not among those cele-
brated in the East. Cassian says that it was intro-
duced in the monastery at Bethlehem while he was
staying there. The reason which he gives for its
introduction is that after Matins some of the Monks
used to waste the time in sleep. The elders, there-
fore, ordered this hour to be recited ; and when it was
finished, a little after daybreak, they ordered that the
brethren should go forth to work.

CHAPTER XVn.

NUMBER OF PSALMS TO BE SAID DURING THE
AFORE-MENTIONED HOURS.

It is worthy of observation that at five of the
hours, namely, at Prime, Tierce, Sext, None, and
Compline, St. Benedict orders three Psalms to be
said. He does this, according to Amalarius, for two
reasons : first, that the Blessed Trinity may be wor-

Number of Psalms to be said. 133

shipped and honoured by the addition of the " Gloria
Patri " to each Psalm ; secondly, that we may be
reminded to subject the five senses of our body to the
three powers of our soul, and thus be enabled to love
God with our whole heart, with our whole soul, and
with our whole mind. At the end of Prime, Tierce,
Sext, and None it appears that the Pater noster was
not said, nor " Dominus vobiscum," nor the prayer,
all which are now said after each hour, together with
" Benedicamus Domino " and " Fidelium animse " after
the prayer. But it must be remembered that all these
were introduced after our Holy Father's time, and
that the legislation of the Church has arranged the
liturgical Office, somewhat differently from the man-
ner in which it was fixed by him.

Let the Hour conclude. — It is in this way
that we render the words " et missce sint!' Concerning
the meaning of these few words there is a great diver-
gence of opinion, which arises, no doubt, from the
variety of meanings which may be given to the word
''missa!' This signifies (i) the Sacrifice of the Mass ;
(2) the festival of a Saint; (3) a canonical hour;
(4) a lesson; (5) a prayer or collect; (6) a dis-
missal. Out of these six different meanings there
can be question, in the present instance, of only the
last two. We have to decide whether the phrase in
the text of the Rule signifies that a prayer or col-
lect should be said at the end of the Little Hours, or
that they should be concluded in the manner already
indicated, namely, by the " Kyrie eleison." Many of
the most illustrious commentators maintain that by
these words St. Benedict orders a prayer or collect to

1 34 ^^^ Teaching of St. Beiiedict,

be said. On the other hand, there are authors of
great learning and weight who hold that nothing more
is ordered by these words than that the Ofifice should
thus be brought to an end. This is the simple, straight-
forward meaning of the words, and they themselves
constitute the ordinary formula by which any assem-
bly is dismissed. Moreover, St. Benedict nowhere
prescribes a collect or prayer at the end of the Office.
If to these reasons we add that when, in the ninth
and thirteenth chapters, our Holy Father is giving
directions concerning the way in which Matins and
Lauds are to be brought to a close, he uses a form of
words equivalent to that which is employed in the
present instance, we may with good reason infer that
" inissce si7itl' '''' sic finiantiirl' and ^' coinpletuni est'' are
all various modes of expressing the idea that the
Office is to be concluded.

If the Community is numerous. — Twelve
would be considered by St. Benedict to be a numer-
ous community ; for from the beginning it was his
practice to put that number of Monks in each of the
monasteries which he built. But yet if we consult
chapter the twenty-first, we may reasonably infer
that the number requisite to constitute a major con-
gregatio would be at least twenty-four or twenty-five ;
for he there orders Deans to be chosen, that is to say,
persons who had the charge of ten Monks — si major
congregatio ftierit.

Recited [in directum), — The reason why this is
permitted in small communities is on account of the
great burden which it would be to them to sing these
hours ; also, it would bring contempt upon the worship

Nianber of Psalms to be said. 135

of the Church, if it must needs be performed by a few-
voices, and these, perhaps, none of the sweetest.

Synaxis. — A Greek word signifying " meeting,
assembly/' It was used to designate a gather-
ing for the purpose of praising God. The Vesper
Office, or, as it is called in England, Evensong, was
celebrated at about six o'clock in the evening, and
was styled the last hour of the day, as Prime was
called the first. It was anciently called Lucernarium^
because being said at a late hour lamps had to be
used, at least during the winter months. Hence it is
that some authors have reckoned Vespers among the
night hours. The Canticle out of the Gospel which
is ordered to be recited at this hour is the Magnificat.

Compline. — It is thought that this hour was
unknown in the West until it was introduced by St.
Benedict as an evening prayer to complete the daily
service of God. In the East St. Basil had already
instituted for this hour an office corresponding to
Compline, which he called " Petitio." The Blessings
concerning which we have already spoken in the
eleventh chapter, was given after the " K}^rie eleison,"
and probably was preceded by the Lord's Prayer.

The Mass. — In the distribution of the various
hours at which the Divine Office is to be celebrated,
no mention is made of the time at wdiich the Holy
Sacrifice of the Mass was offered. The reason of this
may be owing to the fact that there were not any
priests among the Religious, and consequently that
no fixed time could be assigned for this great duty.
There can be no doubt, however, that the Mass was
said on all Sundays and on festival days. St. Bene-

136 The Teaching of St. Benedict,

diet in the thirty-eighth chapter expressly mentions
the celebration of Mass on Sundays ; for on these
occasions the brethren had to approach to receive the
Most Holy Sacrament of the Altar. Later on, when
priests were among the members of each community,
the Holy Mass constituted one of the chief religious
services of every day.

CHAPTER XVHI.

IN WHAT ORDER THE PSALMS ARE TO BE SAID.

Sundays at Prime.— The one hundred and
eighteenth Psalm, of which four divisions {capituld)
are ordered to be said on Sundays at Prime, is in
Hebrew an alphabetical Psalm. Each division of it
begins with a letter of the alphabet ; and as there are
twenty-two letters in that alphabet, there are conse-
quently as many divisions or capitula in the Psalm,
As four of these are devoted to Sunday's Prime, and
three to each of the Little Hours— Tierce, Sext, and
None — the remaining nine are given to Tierce, Sext,
and None on Monday. At the end of the four divi-
sions which are said at Prime there is now added the
Athanasian Creed.

The Athanasian Creed.— The great St. Atha-
nasius^ is popularly believed to have composed
this symbol of Catholic belief while he was in exile
at Treves; and this latter circumstance is brought
forward as a reason which satisfactorily accounts for
its being written in Latin. It is impossible, however,
1 Born about a.d. 300 ; died 373.

Order of the Psalms. 137

to say with certainty whether he is or is not the real
author of this excellent resume of the Church's
doctrine on the Holy Trinity and on the divinity of
our Lord. Some attribute it to St. Hilary of Aries,
who flourished about the year 430 ; others to Venan-
tius Fortunatus, who lived in the sixth century ; others
to Virgilius of Thapsus, an African Bishop, who in
the fifth century wrote a treatise on the Holy Trinity.
Those who contend that the author is St. Athanasius
say that if the Creed was drawn up at a date later
than the Council of Ephesus (431), it would have
contained some clauses pointedly condemning the
heresy of Nestorius ; and if later than the Council of
Chalcedon (451), would have expressly taught the
doctrine of the two " natures " in Christ, in opposition
to the heresy of Eutyches. All that can with cer-
tainty be affirmed about this much-contested point is
that St. Athanasius might have been the author of
the Qiiicujtqice vult, and that there is in it nothing
which is opposed to the dogmas for which he so stren-
uously contended during his long and troubled career.
Of this famous Creed the earliest manuscript copy
which has thus far been brought to light is the Utrecht
Psalter, which dates from the sixth century. One of
the canons of the Council of Autun (640) enjoins the
use of what is believed to be the Athanasian Creed;
but the date of this canon has been questioned. In
our own day Mr. Ffoulkes has tried to brand the
Creed as a forgery of the age of Charlemagne, but
without much success. His argument rests upon
this fact, that Alcuin, writing to thank Paulinus,
Bishop of Aquileia (800), for a book containing a

138 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

description of the Catholic faith, says that it ought
to be circulated among the clergy, and by them be
committed to memory as a " symbolum fidei." This
''symbolum," he maintains, imtst be the Quiciinque
vult, commonly called the Creed of St. Athanasius,
and charges Alcuin, Paulinus, and Charlemagne with
a conspiracy to palm off this forgery as a genuine
composition of the illustrious Bishop of Alexandria.
In support of this assertion he has not any positive
proof to offer, except his own firm conviction. From
the words in which Alcuin concludes his letter to
Paulinus, it is evident that the '' Libellus " which he
had received was not a Creed, but a refutation of
three errors which were rife at the time : (i) a species
of revived adoptionism which had broken out in
Spain ; (2) an irregular mode of administering bap-
tism, prevalent in the north countries ; (3) an
incorrect view of the condition of the souls of the
Saints before the day of judgment. But that which
has shivered to fragments the theory of Mr. Ffoulkes
is the examination which was made of the Utrecht
Psalter by Sir Thomas D. Hardy, Deputy-Keeper of
the Records. After a most careful and searching
scrutiny of the character of the writing, he gives it as
his firm conviction that it is undoubtedly of the sixth
century.

Division of Psalms. — Because the ninth and
seventeenth Psalms are long, St. Benedict orders them
to be divided, and at the end of each division a " Gloria
Patri " to be added. This custom he received from
the Egyptian Monks, who usually divided the long
Psalms, and after each division recited a prayer ; but

Order of the Psalms. 139

he was the first to introduce this division of the Psalms
into the Divine Office. The profound humility of our
Holy Father is evident from the permission which he
grants to the Abbots to change the order of psalmody
which he established, provided that they adhered to
the number which he wished his children to recite.
There was nothing small, nothing narrow in his cha-
racter ; if his followers fulfilled the substance of his
commands, it mattered not to him in what particular
mode they carried them into effect.

The whole Psalter. — This, as is well known,
consists of one hundred and fifty Psalms. It is thought
that St. Benedict ordered this number to exclude
from the choirs of his monasteries all apocryphal
Psalms, of which there was a considerable number in
circulation at the time in which he lived. Thus the
one hundred and fifty-first Psalm, which is to be found
in some Greek Psalters, is a song upon the combat
between David and Goliath. Also, he wished to admit
into his service of psalmody only those compositions
which are inspired by the Holy Ghost, for private in-
dividuals had at that time made many Psalms which
were sometimes chanted in the Church. Tertullian
speaks of the faithful being invited in their meetings
to sing not only the Psalms of David, but also those
of their own composition. Some of these effusions,
especially those which were composed in Africa, were
alphabetical Psalms, in imitation of the one hundred
and eighteenth. It is most probable that St. Paul is
alluding to this custom of psalm-making, when he
says to the Corinthians : " When you come together,
every one of you hath a Psahn^ hath a doctrine, hath

140 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

a revelation, hath a tongue, hath an interpretation :
let all things be done to edification." 2

In One Day. — In order to stir up our zeal for the
due celebration of the Divine Office, he puts before us
the example of our fathers in the monastic life, who
in one day were accustomed to say that number of
Psalms which he portions out among the days of a
whole week. After St. Benedict's time, many of his
children were in the habit of every day saying the
whole Psalter. Among these we may mention St.
Neot, St. Aldhelm of Malmsbury, who, while immersed
in water, recited one hundred and fifty Psalms ; St.
Stephen, Abbot of Citeaux ; St. Celestine, and many
of the Camaldulese hermits.

Twelve Psalms at Matins.— St. Benedict's
reason for prescribing this number of Psalms for the
Matin Office is thought to have been a desire on his
part to comply with that injunction of the Apostle
" to pray always." As, then, there are twelve hours
of the night, during which people of the world cannot
pray, he assigned this number of Psalms for the night-
watches, that thus there might be a hymn of praise
ascending to God for each of the hours of the night.

CHAPTER XIX.

THE ORDER AND THE DISCIPLINE OF PSALMODY.

The Principle whence the right order and the
due discipline of all monastic psalmody flow is the

2 I Cor. xiv. 26.

The Discipline of Psalmody. 141

mindfulness of the ever-present all-seeing eye of God.
In every place it looks upon the good and the bad :
on the good, to advance them in virtue ; on the bad,
to mark them out for righteous chastisement. He
who remembers this will carefully regulate his exter-
nal behaviour, so as to be grave and modest in his
deportment during the service of God, and will ani-
mate the internal affections of his heart, so as to be
wakeful and fervent in the performance of this sacred
duty.

The Work of God or the divine work. It is by
this name that St. Benedict very often calls the duty
of psalmody, because it is that which occupies the
lives of the holy Angels and of the blessta Saints in
heaven. Their happiness and their duty consist in
praising, adoring, and praying to God ; in contemplat-
ing the inexhaustible beauties of His attributes; and
in proclaiming His marvellous works. That which
they do in heaven is one of the chief duties of the
Benedictine Monk in his monastery on earth, and
hence he is ordered by his holy founder never to
prefer anything to this " work of God." ^

With Understanding. — To chant the Divine
Office in this way is to quit ourselves of this impor-
tant duty with that internal affection and unction
which should be the very soul of this grand liturgical

1 An "opus Dei" — namely, the "care of souls," which,
according to the teaching of theologians, is even more the
"work of God" than psalmody — has been intrusted to our
congregation by the Holy See. Therefore, at the call of obedi-
ence, we must be ready to undertake it ; for by so doing we
are, in a higher way, carrying out St. Benedict's injunction —
^* Never to prefer anything to the work of God."

142 The Teaching of St, Bern did.

prayer. In the next place, it is to have a clear under-
standing of the Psalms, the lessons, the responsories,
and the various collects which are read during the
course of it. It is to observe all the ceremonies
which are prescribed, so as to perform this public act
of worship with that religious decorum and reverence
which inspire the hearts of those who assist at this
function, with sentiments of piety. The Constitutions
of the English Benedictine Congregation prescribe
that when the signal for the Office is given, all are
to hasten with eager piety to the statio^ whence all
processions are formed previously to entering the
choir of the church. While actually in choir they
are to show, in the outward carriage of the body, that
humility and that modesty which are begotten of a
mindfulness of the divine presence. Careful attention
is to be paid to the rubrics of the Breviary, and to
all the minute directions of the monastic ceremonial.
The Psalms, whether sung or recited, are to be
chanted in a high and sonorous tone of voice, and in
so even a manner that each of the syllables may be
distinctly heard. Each verse of the Psalms must be
begun and be ended by all at the same time. In the
middle of the verse, and at the end of it, a pause must
be made sufficiently long to take breath, but yet not
so long as to make the Office wearisomely slow and
burdensome. To increase the solemnity of the Office,
it is permitted to employ instrumental music ; but
only those instruments are to be admitted which are
in keeping with a monastic choir. Figured music is
rarely to be introduced, and only in monasteries in
which there is a numerous community. Yet even in

The Discipline of Psalmody. 143

these it is not allowed to be used at all times, but
only on the great feasts ; nor is it to be used in all
parts of the Office, but only at Mass, at Vespers, and
sometimes at bur Lady's antiphon, sung at the end
of Compline. In character this figured music must
be grave and sedate. It must be so distinct that the
words may be heard, and not smothered by a multi-
plicity of notes.^

In the Sight of the Angels. — In many pass-
ages of Holy Writ the Angels of God are represented
as interceding for us, helping us, and suggesting the
good pleasure of God unto us. They are the courtiers
of the great King, before Whom we present ourselves
as humble suppliants. It is, therefore, in their pre-
sence that we stand when we go to worship God. The
memory of this is suggested as a reason to maintain
a reverential bearing and a recollected mind.

Let us stand. — This is another of those passages
in the Rule which clearly proves that the Monks did
not sit during the recitation of the Psalms, but only
at the lessons. It is also an exhortation to keep the
body in a becoming posture, and the mind intent
upon God.

Mind and Voice in accord. — This signifies
that we should always endeavour, when in choir, to
have our minds filled with those sentiments which the
Psalmist breathes forth in his inspired poetry. When
the Psalm prays, we should pray ; when it grieves,
we should grieve ; when it exults and rejoices, we
should exult and rejoice. But, in order to bring
about this accord between mind and voice, we must,
2 Constit, cap. viii. No. 4.

1 44 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

before assisting at the " work of God," fervently ask
for the 'grace of prayer and of attention of mind ;
we must firmly purpose to exclude distractions ; and
we must carefully prepare the Office, so as to remove
all occasions of disturbance during the divine service.

CHAPTER XX.

OF REVERENCE AT PRAYER.

Prayer. — That act by which we lift our minds
and our hearts to God is prayer, in which our memory
recalls His various attributes, our intelligence searches
into them, and our will elicits the manifold affections
which, as it were, spontaneously well up in our hearts
from the consideration of His infinite perfections. In
the preceding chapters of this liturgical portion of
the Rule, St. Benedict has been engaged in pointing
out to us the merely ceremonial part of this great
duty ; in the present chapter he treats of it as that
worship which we owe to our Heavenly Father, and
teaches us those conditions which will breathe into it
the breath of life, and endow it with a power strong
•enough to bend the will of the Omnipotent. Making
use of a very familiar argument, he tells us that if we
are humble and reverential in the presence of the
powerful, from whom we wish to obtain some favour,
with much greater reason ought we to be animated
with like sentiments when we present ourselves as
suppliants before God. The first condition, therefore,
which he requires is :

Of Reverence at Prayer. 145

(

Humility.— This is the very soul of prayer, as it
is also of all virtues. It gives to it the power to rise
before the throne of God, to persuade Him to listen,
and to be bounteous and merciful. " The prayer of
him who humbleth himself shall pierce the clouds ;
and till it come nigh he will not be comforted ; and
he will not depart till the Most High behold." l This
humility must externally show itself in the lowly
demeanour of him who prays, as well as make itself
felt in the heart, by causing the suppliant to acknow-
ledge his own unworthiness and the infinite perfec-
tions of God. Hence St. Benedict says " in all
humility."

Purity of Devotion. — Besides being humble,
our prayer must be pure. To understand what is
meant by this, we must bear in mind that it is through
the aid of the Holy Spirit that we are able to pray at"
all. When He vouchsafes to speak to us, we are
sometimes flooded with so great sweetness that our
very flesh exults and rejoices in the wealth which He
bestows. Nothing is difficult to us. We find no
trouble in our spiritual life. But when He withdraws
Himself, and leaves us to ourselves, then it is that we
see our own poverty. If we still persist in our prayer
when this occurs, and if we are not influenced to per-
severe in it through any sensual motives, it is said to
h^ pure ; for there is no self-seeking, no self-love in it.
We are seeking God in simplicity of heart, and our
prayer to Him \'^ pure.

Not in many Words. — This is ordered because
our Lord bids us not to speak much when we pray,

1 Eccles. XXXV. 21.

L

1 46 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

as the heathens were wont to do. " For they think
that in their much speaking they may be heard. Be
not you, therefore, Hke to them ; for your Father
knoweth what is needful for you before you ask Him."2
We must not imagine that God needs to have our case
stated for Him, as if we were pleading for justice or
for favour before an earthly potentate. Those long
formal prayers, of which we meet great numbers in
our manuals of devotion, are made for the purpose
of bringing home to the persons who use them the
necessities of their souls, that they may then send up
before the throne of mercy the heart's strong cry, to
which our Father never turns a deaf ear. To pray in
many words is not the same thing as to pray with
much affection. Our prayer is never to be regarded
as long, in the former sense, if it is fervent, pious,
humble, persevering, and full of confidence. Our
Lord passed whole nights in prayer, and when He
was in an agony of foreboding grief He prayed the
longer, but not in. many words. As models of the
very opposite to this " much speaking," which we are
to avoid, see the prayers made by those who in the
sacred Scripture are deemed most worthy of imitation.
" Son," said our Blessed Lady, " they have no wine."
The leper, addressing our Lord, said, " If Thou wiliest.
Thou canst make me clean." "Jesus, Son of David,
have pity on me," exclaimed the blind man. There-
fore, the best means to guard our prayer against
the defect of much speaking is to stir up in our heart
an earnest, ardent desire of that for which we crave.
Purity of Heart. — Our prayer will ascend
2 St. Matt. vi. 7.

Of Revei'ence at Prayer. 147

before the throne of God from a pure heart, if all care
for carnal, sensual pleasures have been cast out of it,
and if the memory of them be banished with horror
the moment that it presents itself Besides this, it is
furthermore required that the mind should be free
from all those distracting images which crowd into it,
through the agency of the evil spirit ; which are gene-
rated by the fancy or by the disorderly affections of
the heart ; which spring from cares, from anxiety of
mind, or from ignorance of the methods of prayer.
When all these are removed, the heart is as a chamber
whence all the filth and the lumber of years have
been swept ; in which there is room for God to enter,
and to hold communion with the soul.

Penitential Tears. — External or material tears
are notalways at our command ; but internal tears, or
cornptinction^ may be obtained from God, if we prayer-
fully contemplate the enormity of our sins, and the
severity of the judgment to come. The result of this
will be that we shall grieve with rational sorrow for
having offended God, and for having exposed our-
selves to the danger of hell-fire. We shall purpose
never again to fall into sin, and to lead a good life.
We shall lament over our exile here below, and sigh
after the joys of our true home. In these things con-
sists that compunction of heart which is styled by St.
Benedict ""' penitential tearsT

Short and Pure. — As prayer must be made
with great attention of mind, with fervour, and with
reverence, St. Benedict, who knew full well the weak-
ness of human nature, prescribes that it should be
short, unless the prompting of the Holy Spirit inspires

148 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

the soul to persevere in it for a long time. By requir-
ing it to h^ pure, he wishes to intimate to us that in it
we should seek only God and His glory, not our own
pleasure.

Prayer made in common must be short. —
There are various interpretations of this obscure pass-
age, (i) Some understand it to mean the prayers
made at the end of each Psalm, after the manner of the
Egyptian Monks; or the collect at the end of the Office.
(2) The prayers which each said before the Divine
Office began. (3) Short prayers offered up silently
at the end of each Psalm. (4) The secret prayers
said at the end of the Office, before the Abbot or the
presiding Superior gave the signal to rise and leave
the church.

CHAPTER XXL

THE DEANS OF THE MONASTERY.

Deans. — St. Benedict, mindful of the advice
which Jethro gave to Moses — " to provide out of the
people able men, such as fear God, in whom there is
truth, and that hate avarice, and appoint them rulers
of thousands, and of hundreds, and of fifties, and of
tens " ^ — and seeing that, as the various communities
increased, it would be impossible for the Abbot to
fulfil all the duties which devolve upon him as their
head, wisely commands that he should take untohim-
self from among the brethren under his charge some

1 Exod. xviii. 21.

The Deans of the Monastery. 149

few to help him in the direction and the government
of the monastery. These he calls deans {decani)^
because they were appointed over ten persons.

Qualifications. — To be eligible for this office,
it was required that the candidate should be in good
repute among his brethren for his amiability and his
kindly disposition ; and that his life should be irre-
proachable. It was expected that he would be zealous
for his brethren's perfection ; discreet in the use of
the measure of authority intrusted to his hands ;• obe-
dient, though vested with power ; and humble, though
raised to a position of dignity. Therefore, to be
worthy of the Dean's office, a Monk had to be wise in
counsel, gentle in manner, prudent in dealing with
others, grave in external behaviour, mature in age,
watchful over that which was committed to his charge,
and well versed in all the duties of monastic life.

Duties. — The duties which ordinarily fell to the
lot of the Dean were to awake for the Matin Office
all the brethren under his charge ; to lead them forth
to the work which they had to do, and to conduct
them back again at the appointed times ; to go about
the various workshops to see that all were engaged in
their allotted tasks; to see that discipline was observed;
if he was a priest, to hear the confessions of those
over whom he presided ; to correct ordinary faults
and mistakes ; to watch over the observance of the
monastic ceremonial ; to provide for the devout and
orderly celebration of the Divine Office ; and, as we
shall see in the next chapter, to sleep near those over
whom he exercised the authority of Dean.

Appointment. — The Deans were, in all likeli-

150 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

hood, chosen by the Abbot. They did not attain to
this ofifice merely because they happened to have been
a long time in monastic Hfe. Unless they had the
necessary qualifications, their gray hair and their
length of service were not made of any account. That
which entitled them to this promotion was their merit.
They had, in a certain sense, to be learned ; mature
in mind and in age ; and endowed with such capacity
as would compel the respect and invite the confi-
dence of their brethren. By an ordinance of Pope
Benedict XIII., they had to be in priest's orders, and
at least five-and-twenty years of age. With them the
Abbot i-/^<^r^<^ his burdens, but did not transfer to their
shoulders the authority which was vested in himself.
The dignity and the office conferred upon them were
not given to them for life ; if they became incapable of
performing the duties attached to the dignity, or if
the dignity itself generated in their hearts a spirit of
pride, the Abbot could dismiss them, and substitute
in their place one possessed of the power and the vir-
tue requisite to discharge with efficiency the ofifice of
Dean.

CHAPTER XXII.

HOW THE MONKS ARE TO SLEEP.

Beds. — In this chapter we see the paternal care
of St. Benedict to guard from all danger the chastity
of his Monks, and to inspire them with that modesty
which is as a garment of honour to all those who

How the Monks are to Sleep. 1 5 1

dedicate themselves to the love and the worship of
God. They are to sleep in separate beds, as is
ordained by all the monastic legislators from the very
beginning ; a light is to be kept burning in the open
dormitory till morning ; they are clothed in their
habits, and girded ; the younger brethren are in the
midst of their elders, and under their watchful care.
Thus no precaution is omitted which may serve to
protect them from unholy thoughts, or from unbecom-
ing behaviour.

Befitting their Condition {pro inodo conver-
sationis). — This is capable of various interpretations.
Some take it to mean that the beds are to be " mon-
astic :" not made of costly material, nor soft, nor
flattering the sensuality of the body, nor inviting to
sleep ; but cheap and hard, which will enable us to
sleep indeed, but not to sleep in luxurious comfort.
Others understand by these words that both the bed
and its coverings are to be suitable to the country in
which the Monks live, and to the season of the year —
in summer a light covering, in winter one of much
thicker texture. To the minds of others this phrase
seems to indicate that St. Benedict wishes the bed-
covering and the bed itself to be accommodated to
the wants, the age, and the infirmities of each Re-
ligious, and also to the temperature of the climate
in which the monastery is situated. This seems to
be the most sensible of the interpretations which are
given. Not a few are of opinion that by these words
there was given to the Abbot a discretionary power
to appoint for his Monks beds suitable to their various
degrees of perfection ; so that to those who were not

152 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

inured to the austerities of the monastic life were
given beds somewhat more luxurious than to those
who were accustomed to its rigours.

In one Place. — As our Holy Father has repeat-
edly, in the course of the Rule, left the arrangement
of such matters as this to the discretion of Superiors,
it cannot be said that the well-nigh universal custom
of the present day, of dividing each dormitory into
many cells, as our Constitutions ordain, and of assign-
ing one to each of the Religious, is contrary to the in-
tention of St. Benedict. In his day, the Monks were
in the dormitory only during the hours of the night.
But at the present time, when studies of various kinds
occupy so large a portion of our time, the necessity
for a private cell in which to pursue them is obvious
to any one who will give the subject a moment's
consideration. Besides, the inconveniences of a
common dormitory are so many and so great, that
the wisdom of Superiors in arranging matters as they
are at present is worthy of all praise. The system of
separate cells has many advantages, among which,
not the least is the convenience which it affords for
solitude, for the practice of silence, for reading, for
prayer, and for discreet mortification. In the gallery
into which these cells open a light is kept burning
throughout the night, as the Rule ordains ; and in
the cells themselves that monastic simplicity and
poverty, which were so dear to St. Benedict, are
rigidly enforced.

Clothed. — The Monks, contrary to the custom
of the age, were ordered to sleep clothed. For this
purpose they had two habits. In the one they worked,

How the Monks are to Sleep. 153

and in the other they slept and attended the night
Offices. They were girded as they slept, either with
their girdle (cingtclum) — which was of leather, or of
wool, or of linen— or with a rope (funis), which was
of hemp or of linen, twisted round like a rope. The
reason which St. Benedict assigns for this disciplinary
arrangement is that, like soldiers, they may always be
ready to rise at the given signal, and to repair to the
choir. It seems that each Monk by his side carried
a knife in a sheath. This knife was doubtless used
by him in his work, and in the refectory to cut his
food. When he retired to rest, he laid aside this
knife, lest it should slip from its sheath and wound
him ; or lest he should draw it in his dreams, and
injure either himself or some of his brethren.

The young Monks were not allowed to sleep in
a part of the dormitory specially set aside for their
accommodation. Their beds were distributed among
those of the elders, that the gravity of their superiors
might keep them under restraint, and that they them-
selves might learn from the good example of these
seniors to cast off all sluggishness, and to rise with
alacrity to perform the " work of God."

Encourage one another. — This was not done
by word of mouth, but in all likelihood by striking
the foot on the floor, or by shaking the bed in which
the sleeper lay. Good example in speedily casting
off all sluggishness was, no doubt, the best mode of
encouraging one another to rise from bed, which it
is difficult to forsake, even though it is as hard as
the floor upon which it is stretched.

154 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

CHAPTER XXIII.

EXCOMMUNICATION FOR OFFENCES.

Excommunication. — This punishment, which is
inflicted upon evil-doers, in order to inspire them with
a true idea of the gravity of their sins, and thus move
them to repentance, is of three kinds. First, the
greater excommunication, by which a man is separ-
ated from the communion of the Church and of the
body of Christ. Secondly, the lesser excommunica-
tion, which deprives a man of the Holy Sacraments,
and renders him incapable, for the time being, of
acquiring a benefice. This is incurred by speaking
to any one who is excommunicate. Thirdly, simple
excommunication, also called regular. This is two-
fold : (i) that which separates Monks from participat-
ing in the common table, and deprives them of the
right to intone a Psalm or a responsory in choir,
but does not withdraw from them the right to enter
the church of the monastery ; (2) that which excludes
them from a participation not only in the common
table, but also in the oratory or church of the
monastery.

Power of Excommunication. — Abbots and
Priors, who have the power, of government, and exer-
cise jurisdiction over their Religious, have the right
to pass on them the sentence of excommunication.
They ought never to use this unless the fault of the
person subject to them is not only a mortal sin, but
one of those which are called enormous. It is, mor^-

Excom7fmnication for Offences. 155

over, required that all the steps be previously taken
which are enjoined by canon law. The guilty person
must thrice be admonished : twice secretly before a
few witnesses, the third time publicly before the whole
community. It is thought that the excommunication
spoken of in this chapter is the greater excommunica-
tion, because on the part of the excommunicate there
are contumacy, a grave fault, and contempt : on the
part of the Abbot, there are the conditions requisite
for the legitimate use of this power, a triple admoni-
tion and authority.

Sins for which it is inflicted.— These are:
(i) Contumacy. In law, a person is said to be con-
tumacious who after three citations does not appear
in court ; who openly contemns what is ordered by his
judge ; who, when interrogated by him, will not answer.
In religious life a person is said to be contumacious
who proudly refuses to obey ; insolently answers and
resists to the face his lawful superiors ; despises orders
which are given to him ; and insults authority. (2)
Disobedience. Every contumacious person is disobe-
dient ; but not every disobedient person is contuma-
cious. The disobedience which is punished by ex-
communication must therefore be excessive. It must
consist in a refusal to obey or to perform the penance
which is imposed for misconduct ; in an open contra-
diction of the Superior, or in a contempt of his secret
and of his public counsels. (3) Pride, which is out-
wardly manifested by word or by deed. (4) Mur-
muring, which spreads the virus of discontent through
a whole community. (5) Gainsaying the Rule by
rebelling against it. (6) Contemning the orders of

156 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

the elders, by behaving with respect to them in the
same way in which gainsayers behave with respect to
the Rule.

Method of Procedure.— Before a Superior can
inflict the penalty of excommunication upon one of
his subjects, he must see that all the formalities
required by canon law are duly carried out. The
offender must be secretly admonished either by the
Abbot, or by the elders who have charge of him.
This admonition is given twice in private. The third
admonition takes the form of a public reprehension
given in chapter before the community. When these
prove unavailing, recourse is had to excommunication,
which, however, is inflicted only on those who are
aware of its gravity, and who may be benefited by it.
The obdurate, the incorrigible, and the stupid are not
to be excommunicated, but to be soundly whipped,
that bodily pain may work a reformation in their life
and manners.

CHAPTER XXIV.

MANNER OF EXCOMMUNICATION.

Quality of the Faults. — St. Benedict divides
the delinquencies which are to be punished by excom-
munication into two classes — those which are light
and those which are grave. Under each of these
classes it is easy to conceive that there will be many
minor degrees of levity and of gravity, and conse-
quently that the same measure of excommunication

Manner of Excommtcnication. 157

or of punishment cannot with justice be applied to all.
Hence the necessity for appointing some one who
shall act as judge, to determine what those faults are
which must be considered to be grave, and what those
which may be accounted but light.

The Judgment of the Abbot. — The person
with whom the determination of this important mat-
ter rests is the Abbot or Superior of the monastery.
Our Holy Father does not mean by putting this
power into his hands that the Abbot has his author-
ity to make any faults grave which it may please him
to designate as such, and any others light which his
whim may select for that category. All that he does
is to leave to the sound judgment and the prudence of
one whose position is a guarantee that he is calm and
self-possessed, 'the office of determining whether faults
committed in such and such circumstances are to be
considered either grave or light. Also, it is worthy of
remark that he does not allow the measure of punish-
ment to be determined by his judgment, but only the
classification of the faults which deserve punishment.
When he has done this, his only duty is to apply the
drastic means appointed by St. Benedict himself for
their amendment.

Light Faults. — It is very probable that our Holy
Father would consider to be light such faults as the
following : idleness, coming late to monastic duties,
trifling and laughing in choir, giving up work and
leaving church without sufficient reason, giving way
to sleep in church, over-much talking, receiving letters
and seeing either friends or guests without permission,
disobedience to a senior, and the like.

158 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

Their Punishment. — We may divide into three
classes the punishments by which Hght faults were
corrected, (i) Those which inflict bodily pain, or
impose labour, or cover with confusion — for example,
to take a discipline, to write out a small treatise,. to
eat apart from the rest. (2) Those which deprive of
food,. or of company, or of help — for example, to take
away one's portion of wine, to exclude from the refec-
tory, to work alone. (3) Those which deprive of
place or of degree acquired by right — for 'example, to
be removed from among the seniors to the last place
in the community, to be shut up in a cell for some short
time, and the like. All these and similar penances
and punishments ought to be accepted with humility
and with a rational joy, as so many means for liquid-
ating that debt of temporal punishment which must
be paid either in this world or in the world to come.

CHAPTER XXV.

OF MORE GRIEVOUS FAULTS.

More grievous Faults. — The canon law of
the Church divides the faults of which her children
may be guilty into five classes: (i) light faults, of
which we have already spoken ; (2) grave ; (3) most
grave; (4) enormous; (5) excessively enormous. In
a Religious, that would be considered to be d. grave
fault which is opposed in a special way to good
manners, to the monastic institute, to the Holy Rule

Of more Grievous Faults. 159

or to any constitutional enactment which is prescribed
" in virtue of holy obedience." Such faults as these
are punished by prostration before the whole commu-
nity, when they are assembled in the statioy both
before and after each conventual duty ; or by fast-
ing on bread and water every alternate day, and by
kneeling in the middle of the refectory on these occa-
sions ; or by withdrawal during the space of a whole
month of permission to go beyond the monastic en-
closure ; or by deprivation for the space of fifteen days
of permission to speak with the rest of the brethren;
by the imposition of the Penitential or of the Gra-
dual Psalms to be recited kneeling before the Blessed
Sacrament every day for a week.

Most grave Faults. — When the afore-men-
tioned faults are committed with open and public
scandal, or when they have annexed to them either legal
infamy or excommunication, they are said to be most
grave. These are punished by the same penalties by
which grave faults are punished ; and these penalties
may be inflicted for the space of three months. In
addition to these the dehnquent is deprived of office,
of dignity, of power either to vote or to be voted for,
and of all the privileges and the prerogatives annexed
to his offices and dignities. • He is not suffered to
exercise the holy Orders which he has received, and
is degraded to the lowest place among his brethren.
All these punishments may be inflicted either separ-
ately or conjointly.

Enormous Faults. — These are faults which in
civil courts cover a man with infamy, and subject him
to disgraceful penalties. For these faults the punish-

i6o The Teaching of St. Benedict.

ments usually assigned are imprisonment in a cell
which is lightsome and healthy, deprivation of the
hood and the clerical corona or tonsure, and the in-
fliction of the penances assigned to most grave faults.

Excessively enormous Faults. — Of this na-
ture are considered to be all those faults which in
the ecclesiastical courts are punished by degrada-
tion from holy Orders, and in the civil courts by
perpetual imprisonment or by death. Faults of this
kind are punished by confinement in a cell destined
for this purpose, by deprivation of the religious habit,
of office, of dignity, of power to vote or to be voted for ;
by suspension from the exercise of the holy Orders
which have been received ; by fasting on bread and
water for three days every week ; and by perpetual
abstinence from flesh* meat. These penalties may be
inflicted for five, for seven, or for nine years, but not
any longer. The delinquent is allowed the use of
holy books ; there is given to him some work with
which to occupy his time ; and the Superiors and the
seniors are enjoined frequently to visit, console, and
exhort him to patience and to penance.

In these days it depends altogether upon the good
pleasure of the guilty person whether he will submit
to these penalties or not. If he will not, the doors of
the monastery are wide open and he may depart,,
unless the civil power lays its hands upon him and
compels him to do penance in the rough and stern
manner in which it seems good to it that all offenders
against its laws should atone for^their transgressions.
Any one who is guilty of crimes which need these
repressive and penal measures for their amendment

Company with the Excommunicate , i6i

would be ignominiously expelled from the precincts
of the monastery.

St. Benedict's ''more grievous Faults'*
would be all those which are enumerated in the
twenty-third chapter, to which no doubt he would
add all grievous, public, and scandalous transgressions
of any of the three vows.

Punishment. — For faults of this nature the
delinquent was punished by ecclesiastical excommuni-
cation. He was forbidden to eat with the rest of the
brethren. He was excluded from the oratory, which
exclusion meant deprivation of the use of the Sacra-
ments. He was not allowed either to speak to or to
join the company of his brethren, and a like injunc-
tion was given to them to avoid all converse with him.
He was forced to work by himself ; no one gave him
a blessing as he passed ; nor was the food which he
ate signed with the holy Cross, or blessed, as was the
food of his brethren.

CHAPTER XXVI.

of those who keep company with the
excommunicate.

Communication with the Excommunicate.
— This may take place in one of these five ways, (i)
A person may converse with him, or may visit him,
or eat with him, not knowing that he is under ex-
communication. (2) He may do this knowing indeed
that he is excommunicate, but without being aware

M

1 62 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

that there is any law which prohibits intercourse with
him. In both these cases no penalty whatever is
incurred. (3) Again, a person may hold communica-
tion with the excommunicate with a view to move
him to repentance ; if this is not done oflficially, or by
necessity, minor excommunication is incurred for two
or three days. Some theologians maintain that no
penalty whatever is incurred in this case. (4) By
communicating with him, to confirm him in his malice ;
(5) to counsel and to aid him in fleeing away from
the monastery, the same excommunication is incurred
under the ban of which the person thus counselled
and abetted is lying.

In the days of St. Benedict there was not any
distinction between a minor and a major excommu-
nication. This we learn from Cassian,^ from whom
our Holy Father took all his legislation respecting
this matter. That great ascetic tells us that among
the Egyptian Religious, any one who through a
mistaken zeal and compassion for the excommunicate
should pray with him, was straightway punished by
the very same penalties under which the object of his
misguided zeal was suffering.

CHAPTER XXVIL

THE abbot's care FOR THE EXCOMMUNICATE.

Special Care. — Twice during this short chapter
is the necessity for special care in the case of delin-
1 Instit. lib. ii. cap. 16.

Abbofs Care for the Excommunicate. 163

quents urged upon the notice of Superiors ; because,
being morally sick, these erring brothers need the
attention and the skill of the physician to restore
them to health. It is but natural that those who are
in authority should shrink from this troublesome and
difficult task. Hence it is that we so often see them
eager to transfer unruly subjects to other monasteries,
or to rid themselves of them in some way or other,
thereby unintentionally encouraging the lukewarm,
the restless, and the discontented to make themselves
as disagreeable as possible, in order to be removed to
places in which they fancy that their dissatisfied souls
will find peace and rest. But to act thus is to be
unfaithful to one of the chief duties of their office.
This is to heal the moral ills under which their flock
is labouring. They are, therefore, reminded that
the task which they have undertaken in accepting
the abbatial dignity is to care for and to endeavour
to heal the sick souls committed to their charge..
It is not an office of merely ruling over them and of
lording it as the princes and the magistrates of the
world do. Consequently they must not give their
attention to this, which is, as it were, a merely acci-
dental part of their office ; nor must they direct their
ministrations to the docile, the meek, and the perfect.
The model put before them for imitation is the good
shepherd, who left the ninety-nine sheep in the
desert, and went in search of the erring one as if it
only was deserving of his affectionate care.

Every Means.— The Superior must not leave
untried any means which are calculated to win over
to better ways those who have strayed from the path

164 The Teaching of St, Benedict.

of God's holy law. He must exhort them by the
persuasive words which a father's heart will inspire ;
he must entice them by the magnetic force of good
example ; if these fail, he must threaten with the
severity and the authority of a master, and apply the
rod of correction with the firm and steady hand of
a minister of justice. He will thus, like a skilful
physician, try different remedies for different stages
of the moral disease, at all times carefully taking into
account the physical and the moral strength of his
patient.

Elderly and discreet Brothers. — This is
not the literal translation of the word syinpcectas^ but
only a description of the persons who usually bore
that title. The word has been variously written,^ and
in consequence has been variously explained. The
-most likely derivation is that which traces it to the
'Greek word o-u/iTra/fcrrjc, a playfellow, or as it is
Tendered in Latin, collusor. Hence it comes to mean
one who is in collusion with the Abbot, who plays
into his hands in order to aid him in the task of
winning over the delinquent. Generally speaking,
those who were thus employed in this charitable
service were the elderly and discreet brethren, who
with the Superior's connivance, or with his leave,
came secretly to visit the brother who for his misdeeds
was under excommunication, and reasoned with and
exhorted him to humble himself, to do penance, and
to ask for forgiveness.

^ Senipetas is another of the numerous readings of this
word. It is derived from senium, old age, dind peto, I seek —
/. e, one who is advancing towards old age.

Abbot's Care for the Excommunicate. 165

Grades of Monks. — It is thought that there
were in the Benedictine monasteries four grades of
Monks. First, juniors, who had not been twenty-four
years in the Order. On them were laid all the
heaviest burdens of the cloistral work. Secondly,
those who had not been forty years in the Order.
These were exempt from the office of cantor, and
from acting either as deacon or as subdeacon
at the solemn celebration of Holy Mass. Thirdly,
those who had been forty years in the Order. These
were called seniors or elders, and were not required
to perform any of the burdensome offices of the
monastery, such as that of cellarer or of almoner.
They usually composed the Abbot's council, and
their opinions were asked by him in all matters con-
cerning the well-being of the monastery. Fourthly,
the syrnpcectce. These were Monks who had passed
their fiftieth year in religious life, and who were
exempt from all, or from nearly all, monastic duties.
They usually lived in the infirmary, had a servant
to wait upon them, and one of the younger Monks
to come to talk to and to amuse them. These
were the men whom the Abbot sent to console and
to win over the excommunicate. It may, however,
be asked, "Would not the delinquent know from
having read the Rule that these men were simply
playing into the Superior's hands, and that without
his leave they could not speak to him ?" Several com-
mentators answer, " He may, indeed, suspect this, but
he cannot be quite sure of it, because some theolo-
gians think that it is lawful to speak to an excom-
municate if this is done for the good of his soul

i66 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

Besides, one in his position is, ordinarily speaking, in
so great confusion of mind, that at the moment he
does not advert to these points of Rule. Moreover,
he may think that in their charity his visitors have
asked leave to see him, and have, so to speak, extorted
an unwilling assent from the Abbot, who would,
perhaps, prefer that he should be left without com-
fort or consolation of any kind. Therefore, notwith-
standing his knowledge of this chapter in the Rule,
he would always have room to suspect that the
Superior had not sent these men to console him, or to
prevent him from being swallowed up by over-much
sorrow, or to persuade him humbly to submit, and to
repent of that for which these stringent measures had
been taken against him.

CHAPTER XXVIII. .

OF THOSE WHO BEING CORRECTED DO NOT AMEND.

Method of Procedure. — The various steps
which were taken by Superiors before having recourse
to ignominious expulsion from the cloister are as
follows: (i) an admonition given once or twice in
secret ; (2) a public reprehension ; (3) excommuni-
cation— minor excommunication for a small fault,
major excommunication for a grievous sin ; (4) fast-
i"? \ (5) scourging ; (6) public prayer for the
delinquent ; (7) expulsion.

Sharper Correction. — That is to say, sharper,

The Incon'io[ible. 167

more grievous, in the estimation of the imperfect
sensual Religious ; for in itself excommunication is a
far heavier penalty, in the eyes of an intelligent and
virtuous man, than the bodily pain inflicted by the
rod.

Beaten with Stripes.— It was a tradition,
transmitted no doubt from the Jews, that the number
of stripes inflicted upon the bare shoulders of the
culprit should not exceed thirty-nine. These stripes
were usually administered by the Abbot, as father of
the monastic family, and it was always in his power
to repeat the remedy as often as he judged that the
delinquent required it.

A WISE Physician. — All Superiors are taught
by this passage to bear in mind the nature of their
office, which deals with the moral infirmities of those
who place themselves under their guidance. They
are consequently to act with their subjects as a
physician acts with the sick. They must be patient
with their whimsical fancies, careful in their treat-
ment of their maladies, and watchful in marking the
varying phases of their diseases. They must adapt
their remedies to the nature of the evil which these
are destined to counteract ; and just as the physician
uses gentle remedies for trifling disorders, so must
they employ the fomentations and the ointments of
mild and secret correction for light faults ; the medi-
cine of the Holy Scripture to give weight and
pungency to the public reprimand, by which they
endeavour to check grave faults ; and when these
fail to produce any effect, they must have recourse to
the extreme measure of excommunication, just as the

1 68 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

physicians of that day had recourse to fire to burn out
a sore which threatened to mortify and destroy Hfe.
To excommunication there was added scourging, " in
order," as Isaias^ says, " that vexation might make
them understand what they hear." If admoni-
tion and public reprehension and excommunication,
accompanied by corporal chastisement, proved of
no avail, as a last resource the whole community
betook themselves to prayer. They raised their
voices in humble petition to the Master of all hearts,
to take away the stony heart from the bosom of their
offending brother, and to give him a heart of flesh,
which would be sensible to all the efforts which were
made for its healing and salvation. If the continual
prayer of the just man availeth much, what might not
be expected from the united and assiduous prayers of
so many just and faithful children of God? If the
delinquent is incorrigible — that is to say, if he offends^
not through weakness nor through ignorance, but
through contempt ; if he fears not to *sin, but either
does not submit to the penalty of his sin, or if he
submits to it, is not improved by it — then Superiors
have one other remedy left, and that is, to expel the
wretched man from the cloister, lest those who are
virtuous may be tainted by his wickedness and drawn
into his sin.

^ Chap, xxviii.

Retu7^ning Prodigals. 1 69

CHAPTER XXIX.

WHETHER THOSE WHO LEAVE THE MONASTERY
OUGHT TO BE RECEIVED AGAIN.

His own Fault. — In this chapter St. Benedict
speaks of two kinds of culprits : those who flee from
the monastery, and those who are expelled from it.
With respect to both these he discusses three points :
whether they are to be received again ; how they are
to be received ; and how often. Whether they have
left the monastery through their own fault, or have
been ejected from it by the authority of Superiors,
they are to be received back when, like the prodigal,
they return repentant. The words "through his own
fault " are inserted in order to discriminate between
those who have a legitimate reason for leaving the
monastery, and those who depart from it of their own
accord and through their self-will. A person is
considered to have a legitimate reason for leaving a
monastery, if he wishes to enter an Order in which
stricter discipline is observed, or to embrace the
eremitical life. If, after trying the more severe
method of religious discipline, he finds that his
strength is unequal to it, he is again to be welcomed
back with joy. But if through levity of mind, or
inconstancy of purpose, or fear of discipline, he runs
away from the monastery ; or if he is thrust forth on
account of his pride, his contumacy, and his other
vices, and returns, he is also to be received on the
conditions and in the manner prescribed in this

1 70 The Teaching of St. Benedict,

chapter. In the English Benedictine Congregation
a Monk is considered to be a fugitive, a runaway, if
he leaves the monastery without the Superior's per-
mission— no matter under what pretext he may go
forth— and does not return on the same day. When
he returns, the Superior is bound " in virtue of holy
obedience '' to receive him.

Conditions for Readmission. — The runaway is
once again admitted to the monastery on condition
that he promises amendment of that fault which
induced him to quit his religious home, or for which
Superiors felt themselves justified in thrusting him
forth as a diseased member, which menaced the whole
body with infection and death. Amendment consists
in two things : in due satisfaction for the fault com-
mitted and for the scandal given, and in abstention
from again committing the fault.

How Runaways are to be received. — The
discipline of different Orders and of different Congre-
gations varies very much in this respect ; but as a
general rule, some such ceremony as the following
was ordinarily observed. When the culprit came
back and asked for admittance, he was detained in
the guest-house or in the almonry for some few
days, but was not allowed to speak to any of the
brethren, except to those whom the Abbot sent to
converse with him and to strengthen him in his good
resolutions. On the day appointed by the Abbot,
he came into the chapter-house stripped to the
waist, carrying his cowl across his left arm, and hold-
ing a rod in his right hand. Casting himself upon
his knees in the presence of the assembled community,

Returning Prodigals. 171

he humbly submitted his shoulders to the blows of
the scourge. He then withdrew to a room close at
hand, clothed himself in his cowl, and returning to
the chapter-house, asked pardon for the faults which
he had committed, for the scandal which he had
given, and promised amendment. He was then put
in the lowest place, and began that course of penance
which each Order prescribes, and continued to perform
it till the time determined by the Abbot had expired.
At the present day, a fugitive is punished in a much
milder manner than he was during the ages of faith.
His penance usually amounts to a public reprehension
in chapter ; fasting on bread and water for one day ;
confinement to his room or cell for three days: and
standing last in the community for eight days. If he
repeats his fault, these punishments are increased in
proportion to his delinquencies. Those who need
these penalties find the monastery gates thrown wide
open for their egress.

How OFTEN ARE THEY TO BE RECEIVED ? — St.
Benedict says that after the third relapse all return to
the monastery shall be denied them. Commentators,
•however, are of opinion that this binds the fugitive,
but not the Abbot, who may mercifully receive the
returning prodigal as often as he comes and asks for
pardon. It was the custom in some monasteries to
receive them again, but not into the community.
They were lodged in some dependency or in some
house belonging to the Order, and maintained at its
expense. Those who persisted in their sin and in
their rebellion were left to themselves, according to
that saying of St. Paul : " If the faithless one depart, let

172 The Teachmg of St, Benedict.

him depart." ^ To search for these fugitives, to bring
them back, and to compel them to do penance, was a
measure of discipline introduced at a later date, when
the civil power lent its aid to enforce the observance
of ecclesiastical and of monastic laws.

CHAPTER XXX.

HOW CHILDREN ARE TO BE CORRECTED.

Measure of Correction. — In every species of
government there resides the power of correction and of
punishment. But that punishment and that correction
must not descend like an unreasoning machine, with
an equal weight upon all offences and upon all offen-
ders alike. There must be in it that spirit of discern-
ment which proportions the penalty to the malice of
the offence and to the age of the offender. As, there-
fore, there were in the monasteries- founded by St.
Benedict persons of all ages and of all conditions of
life, from the tender child to the aged man, from the
unlettered clown to the cultured citizen of imperial
Rome, it was necessary that he should legislate for the
correction of the junior and less intelligent portion of
his children. These he divides into three classes
children, youths, and the uncultured.

Children. — Boys were called children {ptceri)
from their seventh till the completion of their four-
teenth year. They were received at a very early age

^ I Cor. vii. 15.

Cor7^ection of Children. i ^2>

to be educated for the monastic life, and in later times
to be prepared for the various professions and the
positions of worldly life.

Youths, or those who were under age (adolescen-
tiores). — The time of youth extended from the fif-
teenth to the twenty-eighth year.

The Unintelligent or uncultured. — In this
class were comprised not only boys and youths, but
persons of all ages and of various conditions, who
through stupidity, or ignorance, or the absence of
refinement and of sensibility, were proof against the
disgrace incurred by excommunication, and indifferent
to the losses and the dangers which usually resulted
from it.

Their Punishment.— Whenever these boys or
these youths were proud, or insolent, or disobedient ;
and whenever any of those who were old, but too
uncultured to care for excommunication, committed
faults, which in the case of the more intelligent would
be visited with that heavy penalty, they were cor-
rected, first by fasting, and secondly by the application
of the rod.

Rigorous Fasting. — St. Benedict calls this
excessive or rigorous fastings but the words are not to
be taken in a strict but in a wide sense, meaning hard,
difficult to bear. In this, as in all things else, he was
guided by that wise spirit of discretion, without which
the possession of all other good qualities is rendered
nugatory. Those who were punished in this way
either were not deprived of all food, but of only some
portion of it, or were compelled to defer their meal
till a much later hour than that at which the rest of the

1 74 T^he Teaching of St. Be^iedict.

community were accustomed to take theirs. A fast
was considered to be rigorous if only half the amount
of food and of drink was allowed. Some, however,
are of opinion that by " a rigorous fast " was meant
only a quarter of the ordinary measure of food and of
drink.

Sharp Stripes. — This is the second way in
which the faults of boys, of youths, and of the unintel-
ligent were punished and corrected. Those who in
these luxurious days advocate the abolition of corporal
chastisement in the education of boys, would not find
favour in the eyes of St. Benedict. He looked upon
the rod as a healthy corrective, an effective deterrent,
and a swift avenger of their faults, and with the
wisest of men considered that an unmanly dread of
its use ordinarily results in the spoiling of the child.
But, while advocating the use of corporal punishment,
he was wise enough to guard it against abuse. It was
administered at the command of the Abbot, by a calm,
unimpassioned man, and in that measure and in that
degree which were proportioned at once to the age of
the culprit and to the gravity of the fault which he
had committed.

The boys who were educated in the monastery
attended the Divine Office by day and by night. They
were employed in singing the Psalms and the anti-
phons. If they were sluggish in rising from bed, they
were caned ; if during the course of the service they
fell asleep, they were made to hold one of the large
choir-books and to stand till they were quite awake ;
if they made any mistakes in singing the antiphons or
the Psalms, so as to cause any confusion, they were

The Cella7'er. 175

caned. This was done by their master with the Abbot's
permission, but never if there were any seculars in
the church. For irreverence in church, or for any
unbecoming behaviour, their hair was pulled ; but
they were never struck with the hand or with the foot.
The Lesson which we may learn from this legis-
lation is, to use the scourge upon ourselves when we
perceive that we have the passions, the faults, and the
ideas of children. The rod is useful to tame the flesh
"I chastise my body and bring it into subjection;'^
to withdraw us from evil, for the Apostle adds, " lest
I become a castaway ;'' to atone for faults ; to help
us to merit the joys of heaven ; to make us participa-
tors in the sufferings of our Lord ; to aid us in our
pursuit of prayer ; to procure graces for ourselves and
for our neighbours.

CHAPTER XXXI.

THE CELLARER.

Cellarer. — This word is derived from the Latin
word cella or cellarius, the chamber in which all the
necessaries of the monastery were preserved. He who
had the charge of all these, and the administration of
the temporalities, was called Cellarer, Procurator,
Provisor, Syndic. He was probably chosen by the
Abbot with the advice of his council, and St. Benedict
specially mentions that he should be taken from the
community, in order to exclude the employment of
secular persons in the domestic affairs of the monas-

176 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

tery. In the English Benedictine Congregation this
official is nominated by the Superior with the advice
of his council. He cannot be one who is that Supe-
rior's relative within the third degree. In his hands is
the administration of all the temporalities, but under
the Superior's direction. Without consulting and
obtaining his consent, he can do nothing of any
importance. He keeps the accounts, carries the
purse, is, in virtue of his office, a councillor, and has a
general permission to go round all the places belong-
ing to the monastery. Within three months after the
vSuperior's installation in office it is his duty, with two
others, to examine the accounts, and after the exam-
ination, to sign them. This office cannot be refused
by any member of the chapter who is resident in the
monastery.

His Qualities. — In pointing out the qualities
requisite in him who is to hold this office, in describing
his duties, and the manner in which these duties
ought to be performed, our Holy Father has given to
all Superiors an excellent lesson which they ought to
study and endeavour to reduce to practice. In the
character of a good Cellarer which he paints for them
they have an exact counterpart of that which he him-
self must have been to all the Monks who put them-
elves under his firm and gentle sway. For it is
impossible that one so eminent for prudence and
sanctity should order any subject to be anything
different from that which he himself was, or to do
anything different from that which he himself did.

Wise. — Therefore the first quality which he says
must pervade all the actions of him who is put in this

The Cellarer. 177

responsible post is wisdom, which we might, perhaps,
render into EngHsh by our word " common sense " —
that sound practical wisdom which never suffers those
who are possessed of it to run into any excess, or to
be guilty of any foolish act.

Ripe in Manner. — The maturity which is looked
for in him is not merely that which only years can
give, but that which is begotten of a holy life and of
an evenly-balanced mind, for " the understanding of a
man is gray hairs, and a spotless life is old age." ^

Sober. — By sobriety, St. Benedict means that
temperance and moderation which the Greeks express
by the adjective (Tuj(j)ptov. It is not simply abstemious-
ness in point of meat and of drink, but that self-con-
trol by which one has one's self completely in hand.
Therefore the word is used here in its wider significa-
tion, without, however, excluding the idea of temper-
ateness in food and in drink.

Not a great Eater. — These words afford an
additional proof that something higher than " temper-
ance " is meant by the word soder. The Cellarer was
doubtless required to be one who had his appetite
under control, because of the many temptations to
indulge it to which his office would expose him.

Not haughty. — His character ought to be such
that he would not be elated by the power which was
put into his hand, so as to become arrogant, bold, and
imperious towards his brethren, because of the " little
brief authority " in which he was dressed.

Not turbulent. — We think that this word
faithfully renders the idea contained in the word

1 Wisd. iv. 8.

N

178 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

turbule7itiis of the Latin text. That word signifies
" unquiet, troublesome, having the face clouded with
care, wanting in calmness and serenity." Responsi-
bility has the effect of causing certain characters to
show all these signs in their outward behaviour. Men
of this stamp would be a source of endless annoyance
and of unrest to their brethren, especially in an office
like that of the Cellarer, in which they would be fre-
quently brought into contact and collision with them
in the course of even one day.

Not insulting either in the matter or in the
manner of his speech while treating with them.

Not slow in executing the commissions which
are given to him ; nor in distributing to his brethren
the necessaries to which they have a right ; nor in
attending to the requests which they sometimes have
to make to him ; but brisk, cheerful, obliging, and
attentive.

Not wasteful. — He must remember that he is
not absolute master over the substance committed to
his keeping, but only the steward, the dispenser. Con-
sequently he must not be too free and lavish in his
expenditure, but wise and prudent, as being account-
able to another for everything which passes through
his hands, and therefore careful to see that there is
abundance without any waste.

God-fearing. — This is the well-spring of all the
preceding good qualities. " He that feareth God
neglecteth nothing." It is to Him that he is ulti-
mately accountable. God's eye sees everything, and
His justice will call him to judgment. Therefore,
though the Superior may not see and may not under-

The Cellarer. 179

stand, though he may think that all is as it should be,
and, on the appearance of rectitude, bestow his words
of approval, yet there is One who cannot be misled by
a fair outside. It is for Him that the God-fearing man
works ; it is for His approval that he sighs ; and
therefore he must perforce be all that St. Benedict
desires, if he has this fundamental quality.

Fatherly. — Dealing with his brethren as if they
were his children. Loving them all with equal affec-
tion ; solicitous for their well-being. Watchful to find
out and to anticipate their wants. Glad whenever an
opportunity offers itself to do them a kindness or a
service. Careful, diligent, merciful.

Care of all Things.— The Cellarer had the
care and the administration of all the substance which
belonged to the monastery — the corn, the wine, the
oil, the flocks of sheep, the herds of cattle, the stores
of food, the garments of the Monks, the rolls of stuff
from which they were made, and, in one word, every-
thing belonging to the external well-being of the
community. His power over these was not, as we
said before, absolute, but restricted by the amount of
authority which it might please the Abbot to intrust
to him. It was at the Abbot's will that he did every-
thing. Yet, although not independent. Superiors
usually leave to their officials in a broad and liberal-
minded spirit a sufficiently free hand to enable them
to carry out all the duties of their various positions.
It is necessary, however, that those who are thus put
in authority should always bear in mind that their
power is of this limited nature. For unless they do,
they will gradually lose sight of their dependence, and

i8o The Teaching of St. Benedict.

begin to act as if they were absolute masters and
proprietors.

Must not sadden the Brethren. — By treat-
ing them in a disdainful, supercilious way ; by address-
ing to them sharp and biting words ; by questioning
their permissions ; by showing unwillingness to give
them that for which they ask, or of which they stand
in need; by putting them off; by acting towards
them in a gruff, off-hand manner. How beautiful,
how wise, how great-hearted is the advice of our Holy
Father to the Cellarer, respecting those who pester
and annoy him, and who are unreasonable in their
demands ! ** Do not grieve them," he says, ^' by dis-
dainfully and contemptuously denying them that for
which they ask, even though they ask it in an unbe-
coming manner ; but with reason and with humility
deny them — that is to say, let your refusal be couched
in terms of so great charity, and be made in such
a winning way, that they will not feel aggrieved
at it."

Have regard for his own Soul. — This is a
very seasonable piece of advice for one who is usually
so engrossed in secular business ''as it is the lot of the
Cellarer to be. It is, of course, his duty to occupy
himself with these temporal cares ; but, at the same
time, he must not suffer himself to be so taken up
with them as to neglect his own eternal well-being.
The question which he must frequently put to himself
is : " What will it profit me to have been a wise and
prudent steward of the monastery, if, through my
devotion to it, I have become a faithless steward to
my God ?" Therefore he must take measures to secure

The Ceila7X7\ i8i

his own salvation ; he must watch over it, and use
those means which will enable him to remember that
he has not here a lasting city, but is hastening with
rapid strides to an eternal home. Consequently he
will make it his business not to absent himself from
choir, unless there is a manifest necessity for so doing ;
he will endeavour to be present at all the regular
exercises ; and will not regard as a privilege any
exemption which he may enjoy in this respect, but
as a peril of which the results may be disastrous.

The Sick, the Children, etc. — St. Benedict
commends these to the Cellarer's special care, because
they are not so well able to help themselves as those
who attend the regular exercises. Therefore the
Cellarer must take particular care that those who are
appointed to supply the wants of the sick, the little
children, the guests, and the poor, do not neglect
them, and cause them pain and inconvenience. He
must keep a watchful eye upon these officials, and
sharply rebuke any remissness on their part ; because
he may take it for granted that, unless he be some-
what of a martinet, negligence and remissness will
creep into their service, and much needless suffering
be caused to the helpless portion of Christ's flock.

The Vessels, etc.— St. Benedict received this
idea from the ancient Fathers, who did not regard
monastic property in the same light in which they
would look upon secular property, but as something
sacred and consecrated to the service of God. It must
not, however, be supposed that he wished his children
to treat the vessels and the substance of the monas-
tery with a degree of respect equal to that which we

1 8 2 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

pay to the vessels which are used in the Holy Sacri-
fice, but only with a more special degree of carCy
avoiding all danger of loss or of destruction. Hence
everything belonging to the monastery must be care-
fully guarded and preserved ; the utmost cleanliness
must be maintained, and efforts made to ward off all
that may threaten its destruction.

Nothing to be neglected. — This and several
other passages in the Rule point out and inculcate
economy. There must be no waste, and therefore
small things must be cared for, and not despised
because they are small. Both the Cellarer and all
the Monks of the monastery must remember that they
have vowed poverty. Therefore, like the poor, they
must husband their resources and avoid all useless
expenditure. Their aim must be not to discover that
of which they may, perchance, have some need, but
that of which, as a superfluity, they may deprive
themselves.

Not covetous nor prodigal. — Each of these
extremes is bad. Virtue stands midway between
them. Hence, though told to be sparing and saving,
he is not to be so desirous of guarding against expense
as to be niggardly ; and in striving to avoid this
he must not be so profuse in his liberality as to be
prodigal and wasteful of the property of the monastery.

Above all Things Humility. — It is not to be
wondered at that one who was so great a master and
lover of this fundamental Christian virtue, should
specially recommend it to the practice of those who
are vested with power to rule others. The pos-
session of this power is oftentimes enough to vitiate

The Cellarer. 183

an otherwise good nature, to make it arrogant, over-
bearing, insolent, intolerable. Hence St. Benedict's
words to the Cellarer, "<^<5^z/^^//////;/^i' have humility/'
So deeply impressed were some of the Monks of a
later date with the necessity for this virtue, that in
order to strike the imagination and to imprint upon
the minds of officials the will of our Holy Father in
this respect, they instituted an extraordinary cere-
mony, which was well adapted to secure both these
ends. It was ordained by Lanfranc that whenever
this chapter of the Rule was read in public the
Cellarer should prostrate himself upon the ground
before the whole con^munity, and ask pardon for all
the faults which he had committed in the discharge
of his office. At Clugny it was the duty of the cantor
or of the master of the ceremonies to warn the Cellarer
three or four days before the date on which this
chapter was to be read, in order that he might make
arrangements to be present. On that occasion he
came to the chapter-house, and humbly asked par-
don for his shortcomings. At the end of the cere-
mony the Miserere was recited, then Kyrie elei-
son^ Pater noster^ &c., Salviim fac servient tutim^
Dominus vobisctcm, and the prayer, UmnipotenSy sent-
piterne Deus, miserere famulo tuo^ &c. On that day
the Cellarer was empowered to give the brethren
an extra dish at dinner in order to show them his
goodwill.

A GENTLE Answer. — This gives us another
glimpse of the clear insight into human nature
possessed by St. Benedict. He knew full well all the
worry and the annoyance to which this office would

1 84 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

subject the Cellarer, and the drain upon his stock of
patience which the continual application to him for
various necessaries would most certainly be. He was
well aware that, in spite of rules to the contrary, many
would make their requests out of due time and at
awkward moments ; that they would ask for that of
which they had but little need ; that their manner of
asking would be provoking ; that their very tone of
voice and their carriage would irritate and annoy.
Therefore he counsels great meekness, long-suffering,
and patience to him who must needs meet with all sorts
of characters. If he has nothing else to bestow, he
must give at least a gentle answer to those who come
to him. Let his face be unclouded, his manner cheer-
ful and pleasant, his address kind and encouraging,
that the timid may not fear to ask for that of which
they stand in need.

Without Arrogance. — The word in the Latin
text which we render into English by the word
arrogance is typhus^ a Greek word (rvcpog) signifying
" swelling, arrogance, pride." The ordinary reading
is typziSy but this is generally supposed to be an error
for typhus.

Without Delay.— He must take care that their
meals be given to them at the appointed times, and
that they be not forced to wait for them. The reason
assigned for this, is to avoid giving to them any
occasion of scandal. For if it were frequently to hap-
pen, they would naturally attribute it to the care-
lessness and the sluggishness of the Cellarer. They
would consequently give way to murmuring ; they
would regard this negligence as a kind of slight put

The Cella7'er. 185

upon the community ; thence would arise conten-
tions, uncharitable thoughts, biting words, and trouble
in the house of God. Besides, any carelessness of
this nature is the cause of great inconvenience in a
monastery ; for as the various hours of each day are
portioned out for all the different exercises, when any
delay is caused in the fulfilment of one, all the rest
have to be postponed, and some of them to be omitted
altogether. It is with good reason, therefore, that St.
Benedict orders the Cellarer to give the brethren their
^^ appointed allowance of food " without any delay.

Helpers. — In order to lighten his labours in
communities which were numerous, the Cellarer had
several subordinates to perform certain portions of
his duty. Of these, one was usually a man of so
great capacity that he could, if necessary, be the
Cellarer's substitute ; a second had charge of the
stores ; a third, of the wine-cellar ; a fourth attended
to the garden ; a fifth cared for the fish-ponds, &c.

Suitable Hours.— In order that the Cellarer
might not be continually pestered with applications
for various articles, our Holy Father ordains that there
should be suitable hours set apart for the purpose of
giving that which had to be given. The appointment
of these was doubtless left to the Cellarer's own choice.
Unsuitable hours would be those devoted to study,
to rest, to silence, to manual labour, and all the time
which intervened between Compline and the hour of
Prime. By adhering strictly to the time indicated
for asking and for receiving, " no one will be either
troubled or saddened in the house of God."

1 86 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

CHAPTER XXXII.

THE SUBSTANCE OF THE MONASTERY.

Substance. — That is to say, all the movable goods
of the monastery, such as corn, barley, hay, cattle,
food, raiment, and the like.

Iron Tools {ferramentd), — These were the agri-
cultural implements which the Monks used in their
field labour, and consisted not only of iron, but of
wood ; they were such things as picks, spades, axes,
ploughs, and the rest. Special mention is made of
the iron tools, because they are more costly than those
of wood, &c.

Clothes. — The garments of which the brethren
had need ; the stuff out of which each of them was
made ; everything pertaining to their beds, linen,
shoes, &c.

Any other Goods.— The charters and the deeds
of gift belonging to the monastery ; the gold and the
silver vessels which it possessed ; the precious vest-
ments for the Holy Sacrifice ; the books ; and, in a
word, all other things which were considered to be of
any worth.

Brethren of whose Life, etc.— From that
which has already been said in the preceding chapter,
about the cellarer, we may form for ourselves some
idea of what nature would be the .character of those
men whom the Abbot appoints to these offices. It
must be taken for granted that their lives would be
exemplary and irreproachable. That, however, would

The Substance of the Monastery, 187

not be enough to satisfy St. Benedict. He would
require them to have capacity to fulfil the duties of
their respective offices. If they had not, they would
speedily be removed, and competent men be put in
their places. Hence we may rationally suppose that
the librarian would be a man skilled in book-learning ;
the sacristan conversant with church furniture ; the
cellarer a good administrator ; the infirmarian, some-
what of a physician ; and the cantor a good musician.

A List {breve). — This word has various significa-
tions : (i) an inventory; (2) a memorial, to call
things to mind which are worthy of note ; (3) orders
issued by a Superior and written in brief ; (4) a cata-
logue of names ; (5) Brevia or Briefs, apostolic letters
issued by the Popes ; (6) lists of choir officials ; (7)
notices of death. The Abbot always kept by him this
list or inventory of the monastic property, in order
that whenever there was a change of officers he might
know whether anything had been lost.

Slovenly or negligent. — If in the discharge
of any office, or in the use of anything belonging to
the monastery, there was either slovenliness or neglect;
if, for instance, the tools were brought back covered
with mud, or were allowed to become rusty ; if the
food was spoiled, or the clothes were torn or suffered
to become dirty, those through whose fault this
occurred were sharply rebuked for not being filled with
the spirit of poverty, which studiously guards against
anything that would entail either loss or expense.

Regular Discipline. — Those who when first
rebuked did not amend the faults for which they had
been corrected, were made to pass through the various

i88 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

grades of punishment. These were as follows: (i)
a secret correction ; (2) a public rebuke ; (3) excom-
munication : (4) scourging ; (5) the public prayers of
the community for their amendment ; (6) expulsion.

CHAPTER XXXIII.

WHETHER ALL OUGHT EQUALLY TO RECEIVE
WHAT IS NEEDFUL.

Vice of Proprietorship. — As all Monks at
their profession took the vow of evangelical poverty,
St. Benedict calls all proprietorship in their case a
vice. This is to be mercilessly cut out of the monas-
tery by the very roots — that is to say, from the heart,
in the affections of which towards worldly possessions
this vice consists ; then from the actions of the Reli-
gious, by not giving, nor receiving, nor having any-
thing without leave ; and lastly, from their words, by
not suffering them to say that anything is their own.

To WHAT THE Vow OBLIGES. — From this it is
easy to see that the vow obliges Religious (i) not
to have, nor to possess, nor to use anything as their
own, with an affection and a will to retain it, as if by
right or by title, independently of the Superior's will.
This would make them proprietors. (2) Not to give
away anything without his leave. (3) Not to distri-
bute any of the goods intrusted to their care at their
own pleasure, but in exact accordance with his will.
(4) Not to lend without his permission anything

Whether all should receive equally. 189

which they have for their own use. But in some
monasteries there exists a sort of custom sanctioned
by the Superiors, which gives a kind of general leave
to lend and to give to one another such things as
pens, paper, and the like.

Tablets. — These were made of wood, or of ivory,
or of any other material, over which there was spread
a thin coating of wax. On these tablets the Monks
wrote what they had to do, their notes upon that
which they had read, their own secret thoughts or the
state of their conscience, in order to be able to make
to the Abbot a more thorough manifestation of their
interior.

Graphium or Pen. — This was also called ''a
stylusl'' and was usually made of iron, of silver, of
gold, or of brass. At one end it was sharply pointed,
in order to mark the wax of the tablets ; at the other
end it was flat, in order to make erasures by smooth-
ing over the wax in which the wrong word had been
marked. Hence in classical language vertere stylum
means to make a correction.

Bodies and Wills. — By saying that the very
bodies and the wills of the Monks are not their own,
St. Benedict means that by their vows of chastity and
of obedience their bodies and their wills are entirely
consecrated to God's service, and, therefore, must not
be employed except in the doing of those things
which are allowed by obedience. His argument is :
" If in this sense Religious may not possess that
which is so peculiarly their own, as are their bodies
and their wills, with far greater reason may they
not possess such trifling articles as pens and tablets."

1 90 The Teaching of St, Benedict.

Necessaries. — These are not only food and
clothing, but all those things which are requisite for
becomingly and conveniently leading a monastic life.
These are a cowl, tunic, shirts, shoes and stockings,
a handkerchief, drawers, a knife, pens, needles, &c.

Fathers of the Monastery. — The Abbot,
the cellarer, who is ordered to act as a father to
all the brotherhood, and very probably the other
Superiors under whose jurisdiction the Monks hap-
pened to be placed.

To CALL ANYTHING ONE'S OWN. — In former
times this was enforced with much rigour, and even
in our own day many who are either scrupulous or
narrow-minded carry this rule to ridiculous lengths,
thereby bringing contempt both on religion and on
themselves by what is, after all, only a means to an
end — namely, a reminder of our dependence on the
will of Superiors. Hence we think that, admitting this
principle of entire dependence upon our Superiors for
everything that we possess, and assuming that this is
known and admitted by all who have even a super-
ficial notion of religious life, we need not astonish the
world at large by saying "our" instead of "my"
when speaking of anything which is given to us;
we may use the ordinary language of every -"day
life and say " my," because it is well known that
whatever we possess is ours only at the will of Supe-
riors. However, we do not presume to blame those
who pursue the other course, if they do so in a broad
liberal spirit, and with a view to keep the state of
poverty well before their minds.

The Punishment. — Those who offended against

Whether all should receive equally. 1 9 1

this law of poverty were punished in the usual way ;
that is to say, they passed through the various grades,
from private admonition to expulsion, if there was not
any amendment.

According to Need. — The model which St.
Benedict proposes to his children in this matter of
the use of temporalities is the first Christian com-
munity at Jerusalem. Those among its members who
had lands sold them, and gave the proceeds to the
Apostles for the general use. Those who had money
brought it, and laid it at their feet. From this com-
mon fund distribution was made to each of the faith-
ful, according as he had need. The principle which
guided the Apostles in the division of these temporal
things must guide each Superior. All his subjects
are not equally to receive of these, but only in propor-
tion to their needs. If their needs are few, then only
few things must be given to them ; if they are many,
then none of them must be left without its corre-
sponding help.

Consideration for Infirmities. — By laying
down necessity or need as the principle which is to
guide him in his distribution of temporalities, St.
Benedict prevents all " accepting of persons." Per-
sonal affection, private friendship, worldly considera-
tion must have nothing to do with it, but simply and
solely the wants of the individual Religious. These
he must take into consideration, and, regardless of
what others may think, make his distribution
accordingly. Among the members of his community
he has men who are weak and delicate ; or men who
have come from the upper class of society ; or men

192 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

who are elderly and who have held positions of trust
in the world ; also he has others who are of a robust
constitution ; or who have lived in straitened circum-
stances ; or who are young and inexperienced, and
accustomed to the strict discipline of school life.
Now, it is but natural that these latter will need far
less consideration and attention, and far fewer of the
little creature comforts which are almost necessities
to some men, than will the former. All these various
circumstances must have their weight with a Superior,
and to his sagacity and penetration it is left to deter-
mine in v/hat measure these various needs of his
subjects must be supplied.

Those who need less. — When the robust per-
ceive that many indulgences are granted to their
fellow Religious, and that the austerity of discipline
in clothing, rest, and food is somewhat softened for
their more delicate constitutions, they must not repine,
nor wish that an equal amount of consideration should
be shown to themselves. They do not need it, and
because they do not need it they ought to give God
thanks for that strength with which He has endowed
them, and for the virtue of abstinence, which they
are in consequence able to practise.

Those who need more. — These are not to be
puffed up with pride because of the mercy which is
shown to them. And with good reason, for their mani-
fold necessities are not so many grounds for self-
congratulation, but for sorrow, inasmuch as they are
marks of misery. They are the occasion unto them
of many spiritual losses ; they cause them, in a certain
sense, to be a burden to the community ; they make

Whether all should receive equally. 1 93

them beholden to their brethren for the performance
of many services, which it is humiliating to have
executed by another; they expose them to the danger
of murmuring, of sloth, and cf tepidi:y ; they fill them
with many pains, and sometimes with shame and
confusion. Hence those who stand in need of many
helps, which the healthy members of the community
are able to dispense with, will find more to move them
to self-humiliation than to pride, if they will but look
at their position in the light which these reflections
throw upon it.

No Murmuring. — Without ever uttering a
single syllable of complaint, a person may be guilty
of murmuring, if he is displeased with his Superior's
action, and revolts against it in his heart. Again, he
may be guilty of it by suffering the discontent which
is surging up within him to find a vent in words. If
there is a reasonable ground either for the one or for
the other, this murmuring is without fault, provided,
of course, that no one is scandalised by the expression
of his discontent. But if there is no such reasonable
ground, then his murmuring is sinful. Does St. Bene-
dict allow his disciples to murmur in these last two
cases ? No ; his words are : " Above all things take
heed that neither by word nor by sign the evil of
murmuring show itself upon any occasion or for any
reason whatever." . Hence the obligation of Superiors
to do all that they are able, by means of watchfulness
and of prudent foresight, to remove all occasion of
grumbling. Also subjects must remember that if the
action of Superiors does not meet with their approval,
the way to have it rectified is not the way either of

O

194 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

secret or of open murmuring. A humble and modest
representation to the Superior is the best means to
effect that which they desire, and if that fails they
have the consolation of knowing that they have done
their duty. By pursuing the other method they
offend God ; they do an injury to their Superior ; they
turn the minds and the hearts of his subjects against
him ; and they afford to those with whom they con-
verse, and before whom they are guilty of grumbling,
an occasion of falling into the same detestable sin.
Besides all this, grumbling is generally rash and
unjust. It is rash, because the grumbler, ordinarily
speaking, has no knowledge whatever of the motives
or the reasons which cause his Superior to pursue the
line of policy which he has thought fit to mark out
for himself. These are hidden in the Superior's
own heart. He is not obliged to take all his subjects
into his confidence ; consequently, to condemn him
upon the mere appearances which the matter wears is
to be guilty of a rash judgment. It is also unjust,
because any condemnation of an act, without a pre-
vious hearing of all that the condemned party has to
allege in his defence, is a breach of the usual pro-
cedure of justice, and an injury to the person who is
condemned. Hence it is with good reason that St.
Benedict never suffers his disciples upon any occasion
or for any cause to murmur against Superiors.

Punishment. — In the case of other faults, his
usual sentence is, " Let the offender be subjected to
regular discipline" — that is to say, let him pass
through the various grades. But here he orders that
the culprit be at once subjected to the more severe

Serving in the Kitchen. 195

discipline. It is thought that this was to pass from
secret reproof to excommunication or to scourging*
We may say, then, that a districtior disciplina is the
non - observance of one or of more of the steps in
these penal procedures.

CHAPTER XXXIV.

OF THE WEEKLY SERVERS IN THE KITCHEN.

No ONE EXCUSED.— When we read this chapter,
and then compare the practice of the Benedictines of
the present day with that which was seemingly so
strongly insisted upon by our Holy Father, we are
inclined, perhaps, to think that the Order has departed,
without much reason, from this exercise of charity and
of humility. A little reflection, however, will help to set
us right,andto show us that our present custom not only
would meet with St. Benedict's approval, but is actu-
ally provided for in this very chapter, from the legisla-
tion of which we have apparently gone completely aside.
In the first place, it must be borne in mind that in the
monasteries which he founded there were usually
not more than twelve Monks, of whom probably not
one was in priest's Orders, or in any Orders at all.
They were, to all intents and purposes, that which we
should call " lay brothers." It was, therefore, but
fitting that they should serve one another in the office
of the kitchen as the Rule ordains. None of them
was exempted, unless, as the same Rule is careful to
point out, he was hindered from this duty by sickness

1 96 The Teaching of St, Benedict.

or by business of 7no7x profit. In large communities
St. Benedict himself exempts the cellarer and those
who are more profitably employed. Therefore, acting
upon the principle laid down by our great legislator,
Superiors withdrew from this menial service those of
their subjects whose talents were available for work ot
greater profit ; and as in course of time the Benedic-
tine Monk, from being an agricultural labourer, became
a cleric, a priest, a man of letters, useful in preaching,
in teaching, in hearing confessions, and in exercising
all the works of the ministry, those who held sway
over him withdrew him from the scouring of pots and
of pans, from the cooking and the serving up of meats,
to the professor's chair in the schools or in the uni-
versity, to the pulpit and the altar, to the artist's easel,
and to the laboratory of the scientific man. In so doing
they had St. Benedict's approval, and acted in accord-
ance with his express will ; for they employed their
subjects in work of greater profit. Even among those
who offered themselves to the monasteries for the
express purpose of devoting themselves to the menial
service of their brethren, not all were suffered to per-
form the cook's office in the kitchen. There were
some brothers who exercised the tailor's or the shoe-
maker's craft ; others were bakers ; others were mil-
lers ; in one word, each had his own department of
labour marked out and assigned to him, from which
Superiors did not move him, mindful of the proverb,
" Ne sutor ultra crepidam," and having compassion
on the digestive powers of their subjects, whose
stomachs they did not wish to be trifled with by the
tentative efforts of amateur cooks. The discipline

Serving in the Kitchen. 197

which in this respect is in force at present is that one
of the lay brothers who has sufficient skill in the art
of cooking should be appointed to fill that office; the
rest of the brethren comply with as much of the will
of our legislator as is compatible with their other and
more important duties, by waiting at table, each in his
turn, for a week. This seems to have been the custom
in England for several centuries, for in an unpublished
manuscript of Father Baker's there is cited, in testi-
mony of that which we are here advancing, an extract
from a sort of abridgment of the Rule, which must
have been written about the year 1380. The words
which he quotes are as follows : " No one is to be ex-
cused from the dressing-board in the kitchen without
they be sick or otherwise occupied for the common weal
of the convent." By the " dressing-board " is meant
serving the brethren while they sit at table, by carry-
ing in the meat and the drink, which were set forth
on this side-table by the cook who presided in the
kitchen.

A GREATER REWARD IS GOTTEN THENCE. — This
is said to be the reason which St. Benedict assigns
for not excusing any one from serving in the kitchen.
But although this meaning may be given to the phrase,
yet its position in the text is such as to leave it quite
doubtful whether it refers to the clause which orders
all to serve in the kitchen, or to that which exempts
from this menial duty those who are employed in
offices of greater profit. Some commentators think
that it has reference to the first, and some that it has
reference to the second. Those who favour the first
opinion read the sentence thus : " Let no one be ex-

ig8 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

cused from the ofifice of the kitchen (because a greater
reward is gotten thence), unless he is hindered by
sickness or by business of more profit." Those who
favour the second read it thus : '' Let no one be excused
from the office of the kitchen, unless he is hindered by
sickness or by business of more profit, whence there
is gotten a greater reward." If it should please any
one to follow the first reading, he must remember that
this labour of serving in the kitchen may be looked
at in two ways. First, with respect to the humility
which it forces men to practise, and the charity
towards their brethren which it enkindles in their
hearts. Viewed in this light, that lowly service is
unquestionably of greater merit to the individual Reli-
gious. Secondly, with respect to the whole commu-
nity. From this point of view there are undoubtedly
several other offices which are more important and
profitable, whether we regard them from a temporal
or from a spiritual standpoint.

Help for the Weak. — If the community is
numerous, or if the brother whose turn it is to serve
in the kitchen is weak, others must be appointed to
help him, in order that he may not be overburdened,
and, in consequence of this, go about his work with a
weary body and a sad heart. By the " situation of the
place," St. Benedict means that if the monastery
either is so built or is in such a part of the country
that the garden is at a distance from the kitchen ;
the well far removed from it ; the place in which wood,
&c., is stored is not close at hand, there should be
given to the cook helpers to procure for him all
the necessaries for his office. Ordinarily speaking,

Serving in the Kitchen. 199

those who planned the building of a monastery took
special care that it should have within its own enclo-
sure everything necessary for monastic life, and that
these things should be within easy reach of all the
various offices for which they were required. But,
notwithstanding all the foresight and the prudent care
of those to whom the construction of the buildings
was intrusted, the very nature of the spot selected
might be such that some of the most necessary articles
could not be found close at hand. It is of places like
these that St. Benedict speaks, when he talks of the
** situation " of the monastery requiring that help
should be given to the cook who presided in the
kitchen.

His Duties. — Besides his ordinary labours in pre-
paring, cooking, and helping to serve up the food of
the brethren, the cook for the week had several other
duties to perform. On Saturday he had to clean all
the vessels which were used in the kitchen ; these were
then inspected by the cellarer, to see that their num-
ber was the same as on the preceding Saturday, that
they were all sound, and free from every spot or stain
of dirt. In addition to cleansing the vessels of his
ministry, the cook usually swept out the monastery,
and washed the towels with which the brethren wiped
their hands and their feet. Either before Vespers or
before Compline, aided by his successor in the kitchen,
he procured towels and water, and washed the feet of
all the community. This ceremony took place either
in the cloister, or just outside the chapter-house. In
some places it was done in silence, while in others
certain Psalms and prayers were sung. This cere-

200 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

mony, like many others which in the early ages of the
Church and of monasticism were profitable and edify-
ing, has fallen into desuetude. A vestige of it is left
in the washing of feet which takes place on Maundy
Thursday.

Privilege. — Towards the end of the hour which
preceded the common refection, the cook and his
assistants were allowed to take a draught of wine and
a little bread, in order that they might not feel faint
and weary in serving their brethren. We have trans-
lated the word biberis, biberes (nom. plur.) by the word
draught, because it signifies a small vessel containing
as much liquor as could be taken in one draught —
about the third part of the measure of drink which
was allowed at meals. The bread which was given
with it would weigh about four ounces. This, as some
commentators maintain, was not taken from their
ordinary portion, but was given over and above, as a
compensation for their extra labour in the kitchen.
On Sundays, however, this concession was not allowed.
They had to fast in order to receive Holy Communion
at Mass. The same regulation held good for all the
great solemnities, because on these it was their custom
to approach the Holy Table.

Besides receiving something over and above the
appointed allowance, the incoming and the outgoing
brother were publicly prayed for at the end of Lauds.
This ceremony is still observed. The blessing which
the outgoing brother receives is the following prayer :
" Grant, we beseech Thee, O Almighty God, that an
eternal reward may be given to this Thy servant for
the office which he has fulfilled, through Christ our

The Sick Brethren. 201

Lord." The blessing of the incoming brother is :
" May the Lord guard thy incoming and thy outgoing,
and take away from thee the spirit of pride : Who
liveth and reigneth for ever and ever. Amen."

CHAPTER XXXV.

OF THE SICK BRETHREN.

The Infirmary.— In every monastery there is
a place set apart for the special use of the sick. It
is usually divided into several rooms or cells, for the
greater comfort and convenience of those who are
labouring under any disease. To look after and to
attend to all their wants, a special brother is chosen
and appointed by the Abbot. The qualities which
fit him for this office are specified by St. Benedict*
He must be a God-fearing man, observant of regular
discipline, and careful in the fulfilment of duties com-
mitted to his charge. This last qualification will
prevent him from forgetting the necessities of those
who, in their helplessness, are dependent upon his
good pleasure. It will make him look forward to all
possible contingencies, in order to anticipate their
wants, and to give no occasion of grumbling to those
who, by reason of their state, are so keenly alive tcv
any apparent neglect.

The Sick. — In all the Rules of the ancient Reli-
gious, care of the sick is specially enjoined ; but in
none is the order to attend to their wants conveyed in

202 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

more weighty terms than in that of St. Benedict :
"Before all things, and above all things/' says our
great patriarch, " special care must be taken of the
sick." They are to be served as if they were Christ
Himself; and because they represent our Divine Lord,
it is their special duty to put that model of patient
suffering before their mind's eye, and to imitate Him
in the endurance of the pains and the miseries which
are incident to their malady. Hence they must keep
a watch over themselves, in order never to cause any
grief or sadness to those who serve them for the love
of God. The sick are often the occasion of much
pain and inconvenience to their attendants by the
low spirits by which they suffer themselves to be over-
come ; by their complaints, their impatiences, their
murmurs, and the injurious language with which they
sometimes outrage those who from them deserve
nothing else than unbounded gratitude. They are
satisfied with nothing. Their medicine is unsuitable ;
their food is not to their taste ; their place of abode
is hurtful to their bodily well-being. They refuse to
take the prescribed remedies ; they ask for those
which it is either difficult or impossible to procure ;
they desire those things which the spirit of religious
poverty proclaims to be unsuitable to their condition.
Sometimes their folly is so great that they pine for
that which would be either absolutely hurtful to them,
or, if not hurtful, utterly useless. At the same time
that the sick are cautioned against giving pain to the
infirmarian or to his assistants, the infirmarian and all
those who are in any way employed about the sick
are exhorted to bear patiently with all the morose-

The Sick Brethre^i. 203

ness, the pettishness, and the injurious treatment which
may be heaped upon them. They must remember
the pitiable condition to which ill-health reduces the
noblest minds ; how it obscures the intellect, and fills
the imagination with gloomy images. It is, there-
fore, not to be wo.ndered at that those who are sick
should sometimes forget themselves, and treat with
rudeness and with ingratitude those who are lavish-
ing upon them all the tenderness of a mother. By
bearing this in mind they will win for themselves that
greater reward, which is bestowed as a crown upon
the patience of the meek and long-suffering soul.

The Abbot's Duty to the Sick. — The Abbot's
duties with respect to the sick may be divided into
two classes : those which regard their bodily welfare,
and those which regard their spiritual welfare. It is
his place to see that whatever is necessary for the
healing of their maladies and for the alleviation of
their pains shall be provided for them, in food, bed-
ding, and medicine. Also it is incumbent upon him
to warn them of the danger which threatens their
life ; to procure for them the Sacraments^of Penance,
Extreme Unction, and the most Holy Eucharist ; and
frequently to visit and console them during the days
of their illness.

It was the custom in many monasteries for those
of the sick who were not labouring under very serious
diseases, to attend a daily Mass, to recite the Canon-
ical Hours, and at table to observe as far as possible
the silence prescribed by the Rule. Holy Scripture
was read to them ; they went frequently to confes-
sion ; and every night after Compline they were

204 The Teaching of St. Benedict,

sprinkled with holy water. To insure careful attend-
ance upon the sick, the Abbot is reminded that any
remissness on the part of officials in their service in
the infirmary, and, we may add, in any of the offices
which are intrusted to subordinates, will be laid to his
charge. But yet we must not from this general principle
draw the sweeping conclusion that all the delinquen-
cies .of inferiors are attributed in the just judgment of
God to those who are vested with authority. . They
are accountable only when through culpable negli-
gence they have neither eyes to see the faults and the
deficiencies of their officials, nor ears to listen to the
complaints which are uttered against their maladmin-
istration. They are, therefore, warned to guard
themselves against any such faulty indifference, with
respect to the way in which their subordinates
conduct themselves in their various offices. A
Superior must bear in mind that in his monastery he
is the mainspring by which the machinery of govern-
ment is kept in motion. He must not be slack. He
must not withdraw the constraining power, otherwise
those who work under him will fall out of gear. They
must all feel, be it ever so slightly, that there is an
impelling something above them, by which they are
kept in motion. While caring for the sick and seeing
that others also care for them, the Abbot, and all who
have to deal with them, must have the discrimination
necessary to see who are really unwell and who are
not ; otherwise they will be imposed upon by those
who, through idleness or through love of better fare,
have recourse to the childish trick of feigning illness,
in order to be sent to the infirmary. Among school-

The Sick Breth7'en. 205

boys this is common enough ; but we are of opinion
that among Religious it is very rare. When a man
puts on the holy habit, he ordinarily has laid aside
the things of a child. We have drawn attention to
this point because the Abbot Smaragdus in his Com-
mentary has gone to the trouble of giving elaborate
rules by which the pretended illness of these grown-up
children may be tested.

The Use of Baths. — The use of baths is not
prohibited ; yet our Holy Father speaks very
guardedly when mentioning them, and says : " They
may be offei^ed to the infirm." These baths were, of
course, within the enclosure of the monastery. They
were seldom granted to any but the infirm. St.
Augustine allows nuns the use of the bath once in
each month. St. Benedict does not specify the
number of times, but merely says that they are to be
slowly, reluctantly granted to the healthy and the
young. Some explain this to mean three times in the
year, at Christmas, at Easter, and at Pentecost.
Others maintain that the use of the bath was granted
more frequently than this, especially to those who
were engaged in manual labour in the fields. In
examining this question, it must be remembered that
the Roman bath, with which St. Benedict was fami-
liar, was not the simple contrivance of which we make
use in these modern times. It was a species of
luxurious enjoyment, and not merely a means to
cleanse the body of its impurities. In this respect,
therefore, it is natural that our Holy Father should be
somewhat rigorous. At the present day, however, we
must take a broad and liberal view of this matter.

2 o6 The TeacIuTtg of St, Benedict.

Our relations with society are very much changed
from what they were in the early days of monasticism.
We are more frequently and more closely brought
into contact with all sorts and with all classes of men
than were the Monks of those primitive times.
Society itself is more exacting in its requirements in
this special respect. If we are to have any influence
upon it, we must take care not to offend its notions,
not to rouse its susceptibilities in those things which
after all are merely accidental and not essential. It
is true that we are Monks, but we need not be dirty
Monks. Dirt is not an essential quality of holiness.
To be unsavoury is no mark of solid monastic virtue.
Therefore let the use of soap and of water be regu-
lated by that which our position requires, and by that
which the ideas of the present day imperatively
demand of those who wish to mingle with men, in
order to carry into their midst the leaven of the
Gospel.

The Use of Flesh-meat. — This was given to
the sick and to the weakly. The weakly are children,
who, the younger they are, the more weakly they are ;
the old, who are weak in proportion to their age ;
the young who are labouring under any malady,
or whose strength is not fully matured. Hseften
defines the weakly to be " those who are neither sick
nor well." The sick are understood to be those who
are recovering from some serious illness, who need
flesh-meat in order to reestablish their shattered
health. As soon as they had regained their former
health, they returned once again to the ordinary
observance.

Old Men and Children. 207

CHAPTER XXXVI.

OF OLD MEN AND OF CHILDREN.

Old Men. — A man is considered to be old when
he has reached his sixtieth year. Ecclesiastical law
then exempts him from fasting, and monastic law
usually exonerates him from the burdens which
younger shoulders are easily able to bear. St. Bene-
dict does not fix any age at which this consideration
is to be shown to the elderly Monks, but leaves that
to be determined by each person's ability to follow
regular discipline.

Children {infantes). — Some ancient authors give
six ages or periods in the life of man. Till the seventh
year any one was considered to be a child. Boy-
hood extended from the seventh to the fourteenth
year. From the fourteenth to the twenty-eighth was
the period of adolescence. Youth began at twenty-
eight and ended at fifty-six. From fifty-six to seventy-
three a man was considered to be in his old age ; and
from that time till death he was in his decrepitude.
St. Benedict, however, uses the word infans for a boy
till his fifteenth year.

Discipline in their Regard. — The same dis-
cipline was enforced with respect to the old and
the young which was observed with respect to the
sick and the weak, as far, at least, as food was con-
cerned. More was given to them and more frequently
and of a better quality. If the brethren had their
chief meal at midday, the old and the children had

2o8 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

some kind of refection at about nine o'clock. If the
chief meal was at three in the afternoon, these had
something to eat at midday. By this was meant
'' leave to eat before the regular hours."

CHAPTER XXXVII.

THE WEEKLY READER.

Reading at Table. — Mindful of our Lord's
words to the devil, " Not in bread only doth man
live, but in every word that proceedeth from the mouth
of God," monastic Superiors have always been care-
ful to provide for their children mental food as well
as corporeal nourishment. Hence while they sit at
table it is a universal custom that one should read
from a book something to occupy the mind, and take
it off the merely sensual pleasure which is derived
from eating. This practice is said by Cassian^ to
have been introduced by the Monks of Cappadocia
and to have been taken up by all who made pro-
fession of monastic life. They were so sensible of its
'utility that those who went to the "second table"
with the cellarer and the servers were not deprived
of it. Even those who were in the infirmary had a
book read to them while they ate ; and whenever the
Monks worked indoors and were assembled in one
place, it was usual for one to read while the rest
laboured, that the mind might be usefully occupied

1 Instit. lib. iv. cap. 17.

The Weekly Reader, 209

while the hands were engaged in their daily round
of toil.

The Reader.— So important was this duty of
public reading considered to be that it was not
intrusted to every one in turn, as was the task of
serving and of working in the kitchen. Only those
were to read in public who could " edify the hearers "
— that is to say, who could read correctly and intel-
ligibly. Those who found difficulty in deciphering
the manuscripts, whose eyes were weak, whose voices
feeble, and those who could not render the sense of
the volume before them were excluded from the read-
ing-desk, lest by their bad pronunciation they should
create laughter, or by their unintelligible muttering
provoke the brethren to impatience and to murmur-
ing. Hence our Holy Father forbids anyone to read
in the refectory, or, in fact, anywhere else, who shall
take up the book at haphazard. He must be chosen
for that public office ; and as it is one in which there
is requisite some skill, from the exercise of which
there is danger of vainglory, the person appointed to
this duty entered upon it on the Sunday after he had
assisted at Mass and had received Holy Communion.
Moreover he came forth into the middle of the oratory,
and there asked the prayers of his brethren that he
might faithfully perform his office. Thrice he repeated
the verse, " O Lord, Thou shalt open my lips, and
my mouth shall declare Thy praise." After each
time the rest of the brethren took up the prayer. He
then fell upon his knees, and the Abbot or the Supe-
rior, who chanced to preside ^in choir, offered up for
him the usual collect, with its preceding versicles

P

2 1 o The Teaching of St. Benedict,

These are as follows : " V. Save Thy servant. R.
Who hopeth in Thee, O my God. V. May He send
thee aid from the holy place. R. And from Sion
defend thee. V. May the Lord guard thee from
all evil. R. May the Lord guard thy soul. May
the Lord guard thy going in and thy going out, and
take away from thee the spirit of pride : Who liveth
and reigneth world without end. Amen.'* In order
to comply with St. Benedict's wish, and to read in
such a way as to edify the hearers, the reader should
always take care to prepare the matter which has to
be read, so as to know the proper pronunciation of
each word, the various stops, and the true meaning
of each sentence and of each period. When actually
fulfilling his office he should read in a clear, distinct,
leisurely manner, and in a tone of voice loud enough
to fill the refectory, without being so loud as to stun
the ears of those who listen.

The Hearers. — The brethren who sit at table
are to listen to that which is read to them. Their
eyes are not to wander about from object to object,
but to be modestly cast down. No word, no remark
about that which is read is to escape their lips. There
must be no coughing and no hissing, in order to catch
the attention of the server. The word mussitatio
conveys this idea to us. The silence observed in the
refectory is not the ordinary simple silence which may
be dispensed with for any slight necessity ; but the
solemn silence, summuin silentiuni — such as was en-
joined during the stillness of the night. If anything
in the way of food or of drink is required, some con-
ventional sign must be used, but no word must be

The Weekly Reader. 2 1 1

uttered. The reason which is given for this is to
prevent any occasion being offered to the devil to
tempt the brethren to laugh, or to murmur, or to be
guilty of any unbecoming behaviour.

The Prior. — Only the presiding Superior was
allowed to make any remark upon the reading, and to
correct the mistakes of the reader. If there occurred
any difficult passage which might be either mis-
construed or taken in a bad sense by the Monks, it
was in his power to explain the matter then and there.
It is thought that our Holy Father in this place has
designedly used the word '^ Prior ^^' and not "Abbot,"
because the latter was usually with the guests, and
not at the table of the community ; whereas it was
the cloistral Prior's place to preside in the refectory
during his absence.

A Draught of Wine. — In the Latin text, the
word which we have thus rendered into English is
mixtiun. In some editions this is translated by the
v^'ord pottage. It is termed mixtii7n^ because the Monks
drank wine which was mingled with water. The wine
offered up in the Sacrifice of the Mass is often, in
ancient writers, called niixtum^ because there are a
few drops of water mingled with it. In a preced-
ing chapter we have seen that the servers and the
cook were allowed to take " biberes et partem " — a
draught of wine and a morsel of bread. It is pro-
bable, therefore, that the same indulgence was granted
to the reader, and that he broke two or three morsels
of bread into the small vessel of wine which was given
to him. This may have been the origin of the word
mixtiun. Two reasons are assigned for granting this

2 1 2 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

favour : first, the reverence due to the Holy Commu-
nion received at the Mass, lest some particle should be
cast forth by coughing or by spitting ; secondly, to
sustain the strength of the reader, and enable him
to perform his duty without grave inconvenience.

After Mass. — In the Latin text the word is in
the plural, Missas. The reason of this is that the
Mass was divided into three parts : first, the cate-
chumens' Mass, which ended at the Offertory; secondly,
the Mass of the faithful ; this ended after the
priest's Communion, when those who did not partake
of the Blessed Sacrament were allowed to leave the
church ; thirdly, the Mass of the communicants,
because those who approached the Holy Table
remained till the end.

CHAPTER XXXVni.

THE QUANTITY OF MEAT.

That there be Two Dishes. — In the Rule
there is mention of only two meals in the day ; that is
to say, dinner and supper. It was customary for the
Monks, on ordinary days which were not fasts ordained
either by the Church or by the Rule, to dine at the
sixth hour, that is, at midday. On fast- days appointed
by the Rule this meal was taken at the ninth hour,
that is, at three o'clock. The supper was taken in the
evening. But in Lent, and on other days throughout
the year when a fast was prescribed by the law of
the Church, they had but one meal, and that in the
evening.

The Qtta7ttity of Meat. 2 1 3

Concerning the two dishes allowed at these meals,
there is a great divergence of opinion among the
commentators, who on this point may be divided into
two schools : first, those who maintain that there
were two dishes at each of the refections ; and se-
condly, those who contend that there were only two
for both, and consequently that a portion was reserved
for the second meal, just as a portion of bread was
held over for that by the cellarer, as the Rule itself
prescribes. The first school is favoured by the adhe-
sion of the " Regula Magistri," by several other very
ancient monastic codes, by the practice of the Carthu-
sians and of the earlier Monks. The second school
is followed by an equally respectable train of adher-
ents. But into the various reasons which they adduce
to support their theories it would be profitless for us
to enter. One of the ablest among these learned men,
after stating all the arguments employed by the con-
tending parties, leaves the reader to choose between
the two. We cannot do better than imitate his
liberal spirit. In some editions, instead of "(^m;^/^^/^-
incfisibitsl^ at all seasons, w^e read " omnibits mensis^,''
at all the tables. Therefore those who dined at the
second table and those who dined at the Abbot's
table were limited, like the rest of the brethren, to
these two dishes.

In the Latin text, the word which we translate
by disJies \% puhnentaria. In pure Latin, this word
means any kind of food. In Latin of a later period,
it means anything that is eaten in addition to bread.
Thus in St. John's Gospel ^ it was used in this sense

1 Chap. xxi. 5.

214 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

when our Lord asked His disciples, " Children, have
you any meat ?" Hence, as employed by St. Bene-
dict, it may be used to designate a dish of cooked
herbs, pulse, eggs, fish, cheese, &c.

The reason why there were two kinds of food
placed on the table was to enable those who could
not eat enough of the one to supplement their meal
with the other. There was not any rule which, by re-
stricting them to the one or to the other, forbade them
to partake bi both. However, it was left to the choice
of each to confine himself to that which best agreed
with him, and thus consult for his bodily infirmities.

A Third Dish. — In addition to the two hot or
cooked dishes there was usually a third, made up of
uncooked vegetables. We have rendered the word
poma (apples) by the general term fruit ; because
p07nuin was used in good Latin for any kind of fruit
which grew upon trees — apples, nuts, pears, grapes,
&c. As for legumina since it is derived from legere
to gather, we may under that general designation
place all garden herbs, such as beans, peas, lettuce^
cucumbers, melons, and the like.

One Pound Weight of Bread. — The pound
weight, it must be remembered, is not the same
in all countries. Hence, in order to know how
much bread per day St. Benedict allows to each
of his Religious, we must find out how many
ounces there ever have been in the Italian pound.
With us a pound contains sixteen ounces. Among
the Romans it consisted of only twelve ounces.
Therefore the question is, did St. Benedict use the
ancient Roman pound, or the pound of a later date ?

The Quantity of Meat. 2 \ 5

The general opinion seems to be that he did not use
the old Roman pound of twelve ounces, but that
which was called the libra mercatoria^ employed in
the public markets for weighing merchandise. This
is considered to have consisted of sixteen ounces.
The reasons adduced for thinking that our Holy
Father used this last-mentioned weight for the bread
given to his Religious are : ( i ) That he gave a bread
weight to St. Maurus, when the latter was going to
Gaul in order to found a monastery. Now, it is only
rational to think that he would never have done this
had the pound weight in Gaul been the same as was
that which was used in Italy. In Gaul, at that time^
the Roman weights were everywhere in use, so that
in order to maintain uniformity of practice there was
given to the Abbot of the new foundation a bread
weight similar to that used at Monte Cassino, con-
sisting of sixteen ounces. (2) When the Cassinese
Monks fled before the Lombards, and came to Rome,
they brought with thqm the manuscript of the Rule,
and the bread weight. At the restoration of the
monastery, Pope Zachary sent back to the Religious
the weight which had been kept at Rome. This
would have been superfluous had the Roman pound
been the one which they were accustomed to use.
(3) Charlemagne, wishing to restore monastic disci-
pline in Gaul, sent to Monte Cassino for exact models
of the bread weight and of the wine measure, that
' there might be uniformity of practice in these impor-
tant matters.

We have now to inquire whether this weight, or
an* exact model of it, has been preserved. The Cassi-

2 1 6 The Teaching of St. Benedict,

nese maintain that they have the bronze weight used
by St. Benedict. It is kept in the sacristy of the
monastery. Therefore we have now some chance of
arriving at a correct estimate of the number of ounces
in the Benedictine pound weight. What, then, is the
weight of this pound ? A most trustworthy authority
says that it contains thirty- nine Neapolitan ounces-
Besides this bronze pound there is another of iron.
This latter is hollow, but has the hollow part filled
with lead, and weighs forty-eight ounces. How, then,
are we to explain the theory which holds that St.
Benedict's pound consisted of sixteen ounces, when
we discover that what is reputed to be the identical
weight used by him is more than twice that weight in
one instance, and three times that weight in the
other ?

Dom Calmet thinks that the only rational way to
account for these discrepancies is to conjecture that
the thirty-nine ounce weight was meant for a loaf
which consisted of a little mgre than two pounds
weight before it was baked — libra propensa — a pound
weighed out beforehand, i.e. before baking. This
was divided between two. The other weight was
probably for a three-pound baked loaf to be divided
among three persons. Thus we arrive at the con-
clusion that the Benedictine pound weight of bread
consisted of sixteen ounces.

If their Labour be great. —There were cer-
tain seasons of the year in which a great deal of
additional labour fell upon the Monks. In the hay-
making season they were labouring hard all the day.
When autumn came they had to gather in their corn,

The Qttantity of Meat. 2 1 7

their barley, their grapes. To meet this additional
drain upon their strength it was necessary to have
additional food, in order to sustain their bodily force.

Not only of manual labour must these words be
understood, but also of every other kind of labour.
Hence on days, on which they had to be longer in the
church and to sing the Office, their strength was taxed
as much as it was in field labours. At all these times
it was left to the discretion of the Abbot to add some-
what to the usual amount of food, by increasing the
quantity of the bread or of the other dishes. All
that he had to guard against was any abuse either in
eating or in drinking; for nothing is so opposed to
the monastic profession as a fit of illness brought on
by surfeiting or of drunkenness from an intemperate
use of wine.

Abstinence from Flesh-meat. — In forbid-
ding the use of flesh-meat to all except to those who
are very weak, and to the sick, St. Benedict has
employed a form of words which has given rise to
much discussion. " Let them abstain," he says, " from
eating the flesh of four-footed beasts." Does he by
these words forbid the use of only the flesh of quadru-
peds, and thereby allow the use of fowl ; or does he
likewise interdict the use of all flesh-meat, whether
of fowl or of quadrupeds ? There are two opinions
on this matter. The first is that only the flesh of
quadrupeds is forbidden ; but that it is lawful to eat
the flesh of fowl, inasmuch as, deriving their origin,
like fish, from the water, they may be said to belong
to the same genus. In favour of this we may, among
other authorities, cite Theodmar, Abbot of Monte

2i8 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

Cassino in the time of Charlemagne, Rabanus Mau-
rus, St. Symbert, Bishop Theoderic, Abelard, and St.
Hildegard. St. Jerome held this opinion in his day,
and wrote to that effect to a person who consulted
him on the matter. The second opinion is that the
flesh of fowl is forbidden both to the healthy and to
the sick, and that only the flesh of quadrupeds is to
be given to the sick and to the weakly to help them
to regain the strength which they had lost. By a
dispensation granted by Pope Benedict XII., in the
year 1336, we are allowed to eat meat; and in so
doing w^e may consider that, owing to the general
decay of strength in the constitutions of men in these
days, we may come under the category of those whom
St. Benedict would consider to be in a weak state of
health.

CHAPTER XXXIX.

THE MEASURE OF DRINK.

His proper Gift from God. — These words may
be understood either of a natural or of a supernatural
gift. For abstinence from wine, of which there is here
question, may be the result of some quality in the
natural temperament which enables a man to do
without drink ; or it may be a grace by which he is
empowered to curb and to hold in check the craving
for drink which is within him. Therefore, as these
gifts, bestowed by God, differ in their nature and in
their degree in various classes of men, so that some

The Measwe of Drink. 2 1 9

are able to dispense with much food and drink, while
others require for their sustenance a much larger
amount both of the one and of the other, it is with
evident reluctance, and with great hesitation, that St.
Benedict proceeds to legislate for the quantity which
will hit the golden mean between that which is insuffi-
cient and that which is excessive. This is especially
difficult in the matter of drink. Therefore, after taking
into consideration all the circumstances of a Monk's
life, and leaving a discretionary power in the hands of
Superiors to add to that which he fixes as the measure
of drink, he is of opinion that he will meet the require-
ments of those who are in weak health, whether that
w^eakness is a moral or a physical weakness, by limiting
them to one hemina of wine each day.

The " Hemina.'' — But now comes the difficulty.
How much did this measure contain ? The answers
given to this question are multitudinous, interminable,
various. The commentators marshal their authorities
in bristling array, one contending for more, another
for less, till the dust .raised by their conflicting state-
ments renders it well-nigh impossible to grope one's
way to any satisfactory conclusion. However, after
much contact with the numerous combatants who
have entered the lists upon this subject, and close
attention to that which they have to say in support
of their respective views, we are convinced of three
things : first, that no one has thus far settled what
the measure of the hemina really is, and that in all
likelihood no one ever will ; secondly, that there are
three classes among the commentators : (i) those who
maintain that the hemiita is a half-pint measure ; (2)

2 20 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

those who maintain that it holds a pint; (3) those who
maintain that it holds a quart '} thirdly, that the true
measure of the hemina will probably be some medium
measure between a half-pint and a quart, for we are
told " in medio stat virtus /" therefore w^e are likely to
find the truth. ^

In the letter of Theodmar, Abbot of Monte Cas-
sino, to Charlemagne, we find the following words
relative to the wine measure : " We have sent to you
a drink measure, for portioning out that which ought
to be given to the Monks. There is one for their
drink at dinner, and another for their drink at supper.
These two measures, as we have received from our
predecessors, constitute the hemina^

From these words, it is evident that the hemina
was divided into two measures, of which the one
served for dinner, the other for supper. Also it is
clear that the two were not equal in size ; for if they
were, it would have been superfluous to have sent two.
Consequently the lesser of the two was that in which
the wine was measured out for supper. If we may
reason from analogy, we should infer that this lesser
measure contained about one-third of the amount of
wine which was given at dinner ; for, as we saw in the
preceding chapter, the cellarer reserved a third part
of their pound of bread, whenever they were to sup,
and set that quantity before each in the refectory for

^ Father Baker, after closely examining a goodly number
of commentaries, maintains that the hemina is a quart mea-
sure.

2 Momsen and Boekh, the most recent writers upon this sub-
ject, maintain that the hemina contains about a quarter of a
litre — that is to say, nearly half a pint.

The Measttre of Drink. 221

the evening meal. The same discipline may have
been observed with regard to the wine.

As, then, the majority of the commentators fix
this evening draught of wine at about six ounces, and
some at even eight, we may conclude that the measure
at dinner contained from twelve to sixteen ounces.
Therefore the weight of wine in a hemiiia would be
either eighteen or twenty-four ounces. In all likeli-
hood, therefore, the /^^;;^^';^<^ contained somewhat more
than a pint. Those who contend that it held no
more than half that quantity may be right ; for as
the Monks drank their wine diluted with water, this
weaker element may have raised the quantity up to
that which w^e have said that the hemijia contained.

The Situation of the Place. — By this St.
Benedict means that if the monastery is built in a
hot, dry place, which naturally engenders thirst, the
Prior is empowered to increase the quantity of the
drink allowed by the Rule. Another reason which
calls for his dispensing power in this respect is the
greater labour which, at certain seasons of the year,
fell to the lot of each community. Lastly, the summer
season, of which the heat in Italy is sometimes exceed-
ingly intense. It is conjectured that St.Benedict design-
edly mentions the Prior as the person who is to grant
this indulgence, because he is more in the company
of the Monks than the Abbot, and would consequently
be better acquainted with their necessities. But
even so, it is always the Abbot's will which is carried
out ; for the Prior acts with his authority, and rules
on the lines laid down by him.

Wine not the Drink of Monks.— By saying

2 2 2 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

" we read," St. Benedict probably alludes to the sixth
chapter of the book of Numbers, in which, speaking
of the Nazarites, we are told that when these men —
the prototypes of the Monks who were to follow in
the fulness of time — had consecrated themselves to
God, they were ordered to abstain from wine and
all that could make a man drunk. Also he alludes
to that saying of the Fathers, which is mentioned in
Cassian, " Neither wine nor anything else which can
make one drunk must be taken by those who are dead
to the world, and to whom the world is dead." Another
reason why Monks should be careful, and on the watch
lest they be surprised and overcome by drink, is that
there is in drink something so insidious, something
which so lets loose the evil passions within us, that it
causes even those who are wise and long tried in God's
service to fall away from Him and to quit the narrow
path of justice. Therefore they ought sparingly to
partake of it, and never to drink unto satiety. If they
live in those countries in which wine is a rarity, and a
luxury in which they cannot indulge ; and if, through
the poverty of their Monastery, they cannot be treated
to it even in countries in which it is the ordinary drink ;
instead of murmuring, they should give thanks to
God, Who has providentially removed this incitement
to sin far from their reach.

In concluding this chapter, our Holy Father once
again shows his horror and detestation of murmur-
ing by exhorting us to avoid it more than other evils,
because of the terrible and irreparable mischief which
it works in that religious community among the
members of which it has once gained a firm footing.

Times of Refection. 223

CHAPTER XL.

TIMES OF REFECTION.

Easter until Whitsuntide. — In the two pre-
ceding chapters St. Benedict has treated of the quan-
tity of food and of drink which he deems sufficient
for his disciples. In the present chapter he appoints
the hours at which they are to take this their simple
and scanty fare. For this purpose he divides the year
into four periods, and in each of these fixes the number
of their meals and the time at which they are to take
them. The first of these periods is from Easter to
Pentecost, during which, in accordance with the
ancient discipline of the Church, there were not any
fast-days, although some few fasted on Fridays even
during this time, in order to reverence the Passion of
our Lord. St. Benedict consequently at this season
grants to his Monks two meals — dinner and supper.
The dinner was taken at midday, and the supper at
sunset. But although these two meals were given,
the quantity of food measured out for them was the
same as that which was served to them on days of
strict fast. The only difference which existed between
the two was the time at which the meals were taken.

From Whitsuntide till the Thirteenth of
September. — This was the second period of the year,
during which our Holy Father appoints two fast-days,
one on Wednesday and the other on Friday. His
motive for choosing these days was very probably to
perpetuate the custom of the early Christians, who

2 24 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

were wont to observe them as fasts, because it was on
Wednesday that Judas made his compact with our
Lord's enemies to deliver Him into their hands, and
on Friday that Jesus suffered the disgraceful death of
the Cross. As these were not ecclesiastical fasts, but
only those ordained by Rule, the Superior had a dis-
cretionary power to dispense the brethren from them
whenever they had to do field labour, or whenever
the summer heat was excessive. The only difference
in their ordinary fare on these days was not one of
quantity or of quality, but of time. The dinner-hour
was changed from midday or the sixth hour, to the
ninth hour — that is, somewhere between two and
three o'clock ; for at the equinox, according to our
method of computation, the ninth hour ends at three
o'clock. At other seasons of the year it varies : some-
times it is later, sometimes earlier. On all the other
days of the week they dined at the sixth hour, or mid-
day. The Superior had power to fix this hour for
dinner even on fast-days, if there chanced to be
labour in the fields, or if there was great heat. All
that St. Benedict bids him aim at is the salvation of
souls, and not at the carrying out in a wooden sort
of way of any merely disciplinary regulation. To our
Holy Father it was a matter of very little moment
whether they dined at twelve or at three ; but it was
a matter of the deepest interest to him that neither
the strength nor the patience of devout Religious
should be overtaxed for the sake of a mere piece of
ceremonial observance.

From the Thirteenth of September till
Lent. — This is the third period of the year. The

Times of Refection. 225

hour for dinner at this season was always the ninth
hour— that is to say, about three o'clock. An excep-
tion, however, was made on Sundays and on the great
festivals. On these days the dinner-hour was mid-
day. The Council of Aix-la-Chapelle * gives the
following list of the days upon which the Monks had
two meals : Christmas and its octave, and also the
octaves of our Lord's feasts ; the Epiphany, Easter,
Ascension Day, St. Stephen, St. John the Evangelist,
Holy Innocents, the Assumption, all the feasts of
the Apostles, St. John the Baptist, St. Lawrence, St.
Martin, and the patrons of the churches. On all the
festivals which occurred during Lent there was no
change whatever, but the strict fast was observed.

Any one who reads the forty-seventh chapter, and
then compares with it that which is said here, namely,
" From the thirteenth of September till the beginning
of Lent let the brethren always take their meal at the
ninth hour — that is to say, about three o'clock,".; will
be somewhat puzzled to understand how it is that St.
Benedict orders his Monks to take some short rest
upon their beds after their midday meal during all the
period which intervenes between Easter and the frst
of October, In order to harmonise these apparently
conflicting statements, all that is necessary is to
remember that in the present chapter our Holy Father
means from the thirteenth of September exclusively ;
while in the forty-seventh chapter he includes all the
days which intervene between the fourteenth of Sep-
tember and the first of October.

From Lent till Easter.— This is the fourth

1 A.D. 816.

Q

2 26 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

period of St. Benedict's monastic year. During this
time he fixes the hour for refection at about five
o'clock in the evening. When we consider that the
Monks of his day rose at about two o'clock, chanted
the Matin Office, and occupied themselves during the
rest of the day in manual labour and in devout read-
ing, we may well look upon the discipline of these
days as soft. These holy men did all this, without
breaking their rigorous fast, till close upon sunset.
Let us humble ourselves to the very dust when we
reflect upon their mortified lives, and endeavour by
fervour of spirit to make some little amends for the
absence from our lives of that rigorous austerity
which the decay of bodily vigour in these our days,
and the exigencies of the times in which we live,
render possible to only a privileged few. The taking
of this one meal, which was allowed during Lent only
towards the evening, was not restricted to the Monks.
Even laymen were accustomed, in those days of
faith and of fervour, to emulate the asceticism of the
cloister.

St. Bernard in the following words bears witness
to this custom. Addressing his Monks, he says : " Up
to the present time of the year only Monks have fasted
until the ninth hour ; but from this time forth, during
the whole Lent, all the world will keep us company in
our fast till evening — kings and princes, clergy and
people, noble and simple, rich and poor."^

All Things to be done by Daylight. — This
is a general order for the whole year. How, then,
could this be carried out in January, in December,
2 Serm. iii. in Quadrag.

Times for Refection. 227

and in the other winter months ? We must remember
that he speaks of Italy, in which the days are not so
short as they are in northern countries. Also, it is
uncertain whether from the fourteenth of September
until Easter supper was given to the Monks on those
days upon which they dined at midday. It was cer-
tainly not given to them when they dined at three
o'clock. Therefore it is quite possible that they could
do without lamps all through the year.

Again, it is conjectured that these words may refer
not only to the hour for meals, but also to the hours
for saying the Divine Office. In his zeal for carrying
out to the very letter these words of the Psalmist,
" Seven times a day have I sung praises unto Thee,"
St. Benedict may have wished that the day hours
should always be said without lights. Therefore
Lauds, Prime, Tierce, Sext, None, Vespers, and Com-
pline were recited while there was daylight. The
Nocturns or Matins were said when it was dark, and
a light would be used only by those who read the
lessons at the lectern. This is the solution which
Father Baker offers in explanation of the words, " Let
all things be done by daylight." However, the gene-
ral consensus of the commentators seems to restrict
these words to the hours for the evening refection.

2 28 The Teaching of St . Benedict.

CHAPTER XLI.

THAT NO ONE MAY SPEAK AFTER COMPLINE.

Studious of Silence. — This means much more
than merely keeping silence ; it means that Monks
ought to love silence, and through their love of it to
keep their lips sealed. Yet it does not imply that
they are perpetually to close their Hps. This is an
extreme from which St. Benedict, much as he loved
this lowly virtue, studiously kept aloof There is, as
the Scripture says, a time for everything ; therefore,
if there is a time for silence, there is also a time for
speech. This time for speech in the Monk's case is
that in which either obedience calls upon him to use
his tongue, or some reasonable cause unlocks the gates
of his lips. On all other occasions he must keep in
strict custody that unquiet evil, which, when loosed
from its bonds, works such frightful havoc among the
children of the world. By holding it in check, and
taming it in the bands of silence, men are enabled to
enjoy that peace of soul for which so many sigh in
vain. They become conscious of God's ever-abiding
presence. They attend to all the whisperings of the
Holy Spirit. Of all these inestimable privileges they
would be deprived if they once lost over their tongues
that control which they acquire by being ever studious
of silence. " The sources of sinlessness are solitude,
silence, peace."

Conference on Days not of Fast. — We must
remember that in the monastic year there are three

Silence after Compline. 229

kinds of days. First, those which are neither days of
fast appointed by the Rule, nor days of fast deter-
mined by the law of the Church. These we may call
free days. On them the Monks both dined and
supped. It was hnmediately after supper on these
occasions that the brethren assembled for the reading
of the " Conferences."

On Fast-days appointed by the Rule.— Se-
condly, those which are fast-days appointed by the
Rule. On these days there was not any supper, and
dinner was put off till about three o'clock. Vespers
were recited at the usual time in the evening ; and
then, after a brief interval, which gave time to all
those who chanced to be occupied with some duty to
assemble for the conference, the reading began, and
lasted till the signal was given for Compline.

Fasting-days of the Church. — Thirdly, fast-
ing-days appointed by the Church. On these days
there was but one meal, and that in the evening
after Vespers. Although St. Benedict does not in this
place speak of these fasts, it is generally supposed that
the brethren went straight from the refectory to the
reading of the conference, and that the lecture was
continued until the servers and those who had been
engaged in the kitchen had finished their meal. After
their arrival in the oratory. Compline was begun, and
thus all were present together, to end the day in the
praises of God.

" COLLATIONES " (Conferences). —This is the
name given to a work written by Cassian. It con-
tains the conferences of the Hermits and the Reli-
gious who dwelt in the Egyptian deserts. It was the

230 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

custom of these holy men to meet together, from time
to time, to confer upon spiritual matters. On these
occasions, questions were asked by the new-comers
and the inexperienced, and the answers to them were
given by those who had had a long and practical
experience of the ascetical life. As time went on, and
as men who were capable of speaking authoritatively
upon these subjects became fewer, the conference was
changed into a lecture, and the wisdom which had
formerly flowed like a stream from the teacher's mouth
was now doled out from the pages, into which admir-
ing disciples had coll-ected the refreshing waters of
spiritual instruction. Although changed in form, the
old name " collatio " still cleaved to those lectures.

Collation. — At the present day this name is
given to the slight refection which on fasting-days is
taken instead of supper. How this came to be so
called is somewhat interesting, and an explanation of
it very properly finds its place here. It seems that
in course of time there had grown up a custom of
giving to the brethren assembled at the conference a
drink of wine or of water. Probably this concession
was made out of consideration for the labour in which
they had been employed during the course of the day,
or because of the heat of the season. As this drink
was served to them either before or during the reading
of the conference {collatio), it came to be called by
the name of that duty during which it was bestowed.
To drink without having at the same time something
to eat was, in the lapse of years, considered to be
hurtful ; and the custom of having a morsel of bread
with the drink was gradually introduced. But because

Silence after Compline. 2 3 1

some persons found that either bread and wine, or bread
and water, were heavy for the stomach and somewhat
indigestible, other food was allowed at the collation.
Thus,, in the course of ages, we have arrived at the
present discipline, which is sanctioned by the Church,
so that all the faithful are allowed to take this indul-
gence, even on days of the most rigorous fast.

The Lives of the Faihers. — This is a volume
made up of the lives, the sayings, and the miracles of
the great Saints and the Fathers of the desert. Many
of these lives were written by St. Athanasius and by
St. Jerome. Others are to be found in the pages of
the conferences themselves, and were, perhaps, either
culled thence and gathered together in one volume, or
were marked by the Abbot and given to the lector
to read before the brethren.

The Heptateuch. — This word is derived from
two Greek words which signify " the seven books."
These are the five books of Moses, Genesis, Exodus,
Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy ; the two
books, Josue and Judges. To these there is usu-
ally added the Book of Ruth, inasmuch as it is con-
sidered to be only an appendix to the Book of Judges.
At the hour preceding Compline, St. Benedict forbids
the reading of this part of the Holy Scriptures, and
also of the four Books of Kings. His motive for this
prohibition is probably to prevent the minds of his
Religious from being disturbed by the accounts of
wars, of genealogies, and of certain other matters
which are to be met with in the pages of these
books. He deemed it better for them to retire to
rest with their minds filled with the holy and peace-

232 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

ful thoughts engendered by the simple narratives of
the lives of saintly men, and with the sound principles
of asceticism, delivered in some quaint and striking
form of words by the Solitaries of the great desert.

No Speaking after Compline. — On going
forth from the church or oratory after the recitation
of Compline, the solemn silence of the night began.
This has always been deemed most sacred, and no
one ever dares to break it without some serious neces-
sity, and with leave obtained from the Abbot. If
any guests arrived during this time, they were received
and entertained. But yet the Monks to whom this
office was committed endeavoured to let it be seen
by their behaviour, and the subdued tones of their
voices, that it was the "great silence" of the night.
Even the Abbot must observe this rule, and if he has
occasion to break through it, it must be for some rea-
sonable cause. We learn from the " Regula Magistri ^^
that these words were said at the beginning of the
" great silence :" " Set a watch, O Lord, before my
mouth, and a door round about my lips." This
silence lasted until the chapter which was held after
Prime on the following morning. The breaking of
this rule was visited with a more than ordinarily
severe punishment.

Reasons for explaining these Observances.
— On reading the preceding explanations of these
various observances, and of many others about which
we have already spoken, it may to some persons
seem strange that we should enter with such minute
detail into these matters, some of which have fallen
into disuse. A little reflection, however, will show

Silence after Compline. 233

that this is not labour spent in vain. For, in the
first place, if it serves no other purpose, it helps us to
understand more clearly, and to remember more
easily, those parts of the Rule which are in use and
practice among us. In consequence of such disquisi-
tions we can see those parts of St. Benedict's legis-
lation which remain intact, and those which Superiors
with good reason and through necessity have thought
it incumbent upon them to change, and to adapt to
the altered circumstances of these our modern times*
If we were never treated to such explanations we
should sometimes be at a loss to know what is in
practice and what is not. But by having an accurate
knowledge upon this point we obtain a firmer grasp
of the Rule as a whole, and a clearer insight into the
bearings of its various enactments upon one another.
Moreover they enable us to see in what matters, and
for what reasons. Superiors have made many changes
in the Rule. That Rule, we then begin to perceive,
is the same Rule of St. Benedict, notwithstanding all
these various alterations which it has undergone.
For, in spite of these, it is in all essential points identi-
cally the same Rule which our Holy Father himself
observed, and gave as a guide to .all those who wished
to tread in his footsteps. Only in the merely acci-
dental parts of it has any change been made ; and in
these the alterations have the sanction of our great
founder himself, who has expressly, in the pages of
his own legislation, told Superiors to introduce these
changes as often as necessity or any other just reason
shall call for them. Take, for instance, any of the
various points in which the present practice is at vari-

234 ^'^^^ Teaching of St. Bejiedict.

ance with that which was ordered by St. Benedict,
and you will see at a glance that in substance our
practice is the same, and only in the mode of observ-
ance has it suffered any change. St. Benedict orders
all things to be done by daylight, and we do many
of our duties by gaslight ; he allows only two meals
per day, and sometimes only one, while we have
either two, or even three ; according to him the Abbot
should read the Gospel at the end of Matins, and we
allow the precentor for the week to do this ; he pro-
hibits the use of flesh-meat, and we eat it. In these,
and in many other matters, there is nothing which is
so vitally important that, if it were wholly eliminated
from the practice of Religious, they would cease to be
that which they pretend to be. Is it for a single
moment to be thought that a man of such breadth of
view and grasp of mind as St. Benedict undoubtedly
was would force his children, in spite of numberless
inconveniences, and the omission of other more im-
portant duties, to say all the Office by daylight ?
Would he restrict to any particular measure of food
those who could not execute their daily round of
profitable work without much more than he pre-
scribes ? Can we imagine him obstinately insisting
upon the Abbot readi-ng the Gospel, when the cere-
monial of the Church has ordained it otherwise ?
Would he insist upon total abstinence from flesh-
meat in this age of the world, and in these northern
climates, when, in consequence of the observance of
such abstinence, many far more important works for
the salvation of souls would have to be abandoned ?
We think not. Provided that his spirit is cultivated

Want of Punctuality, ^'^s

among us, that prayer is made the business of our
lives, that we withdraw ourselves from the spirit of
the world, that we sedulously guard the main points
of monastic discipline, we may feel quite sure that we
shall satisfy both our great legislator and our Master
and Father Who is in heaven. Like our Divine Lord,
we are convinced that it is not that which entereth
the mouth which defileth a man, but murmuring,
mpertinent talk, worldly conversations, uncharitable
remarks, and biting criticism which go forth from his
mouth. These are the things which defile him. It
is for these reasons that we have deemed it fitting to
enter into all the details of the Rule, and to be
minute about even those parts of it which are no
longer in practice, and those which, by the legitimate
action of Superiors, have been somewhat altered to
meet the necessities both of the subjects who are try-
ing to serve God under their guidance, and of the
times in which we are living.

CHAPTER XLII.

OF THOSE WHO COME LATE TO THE " WORK OF
GOD," OR TO TABLE.

Laying aside Work.— In the mind of St. Bene-
dict, the " work of God," that is to say, the Divine
Office, held the first place. It was his aim, as maybe
seen by that which he has said in several other pass-
ages of the Rule, to fix this same idea in the minds of

236 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

his disciples. " Nothing else must be preferred to it/*
It must never be set aside, nor be made to give place
to anything else. First in importance, first in dignity
— always, of course, excepting the Holy Sacrifice of the
Mass — it was to be said at the appointed time, and
on the first signal which intimated to the brothers that
the moment had come for them to perform this duty
of prayer and of praise, they were to disengage them-
selves at once from every occupation in which they
might chance to be employed, in order to show their
high appreciation of that work which, by reason of
Him for Whom it is performed, as well as for its own
intrinsic worth, must stand first in their esteem and
in their love. In complying with these wishes of St.
Benedict, we must remember that he was preemi-
nently a man of sound, practical common sense ; and,
consequently, that we shall not please him, nor carry
out his wishes, unless we endeavour to do so in a way
which would meet with his approval. Therefore we
must use that measure of common sense which has
been dispensed to us by Providence. When we read
in this chapter that at the signal for Divine Office
we must at once disengage ourselves from anything
in which, at the time, we happen to be employed, we
must take care to do this in a way which will not
bring ridicule and contempt upon ourselves and upon
religion. For there are some persons who, in their
misguided zeal for literally obeying our Holy Father's
injunctions, drop from their hands [exoccupatis maJii-
bus) that which they are holding, start from their
seats as if they had received an electric shock, and
sometimes thus suddenly quit the company of guests.

Want of Punctuality. 237

who remain startled and almost breathless with
amazement. This, of course, is prompt obedience of
a certain kind ; but if there is any one who thinks
that, in these circumstances, it is either praiseworthy
or edifying, the sooner he disabuses himself of the
illusion the better it will be for himself It is not
praiseworthy, because it is unwise ; and it is not
edifying, because it gives people a notion that those
who embrace religious life leave their common sense
behind them in the world. Therefore, whenever a
Monk is engaged in the performance of any act which
cannot at once be discontinued without danger of loss,
or of harm, or of disedification, or of any other incon-
venience, St. Benedict does not look for that prompti-
tude of obedience which, when none of these obstacles
stand in the way, is so pleasing both to him and to
our Divine Master. If any one is drawing wine, he
must not start off and leave the tap running, nor the
half-filled vessel uncovered. If any one is serving
the sick, he must not abandon them. If any one is
entertaining guests, he must with that grace and
polish which sit so well upon the Monk excuse him-
self and then retire, after providing for their wants
and their amusement until his return. There are
times, of course, in which guests must not be left to
themselves, and on all these occasions Superiors take
care that leave is given for absence from choir
duties.

Speaking of the promptitude with which Religious
should obey the signal for the " work of God," the
author of the " Regula Magistri '' says : " As soon as
the signal indicates that the hour for performing the

238 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

' work of God ' has come, let those who are labouring
at once give over their work ; let the craftsmen drop
their tools ; let not the copyists finish a letter ; let
the whole brotherhood cease from that in which they
are engaged, and speed to the oratory with gravity
of mien and with recollection of heart." In these
days, however, we would suggest that all tools which
can conveniently be carried to some place of safety
should first be deposited there ; and we once again
venture to repeat that common sense must guide to
a rational interpretation of this and of many other
similar counsels those who wish to follow the example
of holy Religious.

Those who come late to Matins. — The
ninety-fourth Psalm is said slowly at the beginning
of Matins, in order to give time to the Monks to be
in their places for the first Psalm of the Nocturns. If
any one comes when this part of the Divine Office
has begun, he is not allowed to join the rest by going
to his accustomed seat, but is ordered to stand in the
place which is appointed by the Abbot, and to remain
there until the conclusion of the Office. In this ordi-
nance St. Benedict made a departure from the disci-
pline which had been previously observed among
Religious. The laggards were altogether excluded
from the choir, and punished in various other ways.
The reason for this divergence from the practice of
the Monks who had preceded him in the monastic
life is given by himself, when he says that he did this
in order that they might neither go back to the dor-
mitory and spend in sleep the time for prayer, nor
give themselves up to idle talk while standing out-

Want of Punctuality. 239

side the oratory, and thus afford an occasion to
the devil to lead them into sin.

Those who come late to the other Hours.
— If any Monk comes to the choir after the " Deus in
adjutorium," and the " Gloria Patri," which follows the
first Psalm of any of the other hours, he must stand
in the place indicated for those who in this way
offend against discipline, and make that satisfaction
which is appointed by Rule. This formerly con-
sisted either in kneeling or in prostrating till the pre-
siding Superior gave the signal by which he intimated
that the offender might go to his place in the choir.
In addition to this public punishment, other penalties
were imposed upon those who were systematically
late for the " work of God." The discipline at present
in use is that those who are late advance to the steps
of the sanctuary, and, if. they are juniors, cast them-
selves upon their knees till the Superior gives them a
sign to rise and return to their places. When a senior
is not in time for the Office, he approaches the steps
of the sanctuary, and there profoundly inclines till
permission is granted him to join the choir.

Those who come late to the Refectory. —
The grace said before dinner is begun by the cantor
singing " Benedicite ;" this word is repeated by the
rest, and the cantor then intones the versicle, " Oculi
omnium in te sperant Domine." The versicle with
which the grace after dinner is begun is " Confitean-
tur tibi Domine." Before supper, the versicle,
" Edent pauperes et saturabuntur,'' is sung; after-
supper the versicle, " Memoriam fecit mirabilium.'*
Any one who through negligence, or through his own

240 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

fault, is not present in the refectory before these
versicles are sung, for the first and second offence is
corrected, very probably by words only. If these
prove unavailing, the delinquent is not suffered to eat
at the common table, but is made to dine or to sup
apart from the rest, and his portion of wine is taken
from him. If there is neither fault nor negligence in
his absence from grace, he merely kneels at the door
of the refectory till he is told to go to his place.
Seniors, when late, bow profoundly till the Superior
gives them leave to go to their places. The penalties
for being away from the grace after meals are the
same as those inflicted for absence from the grace
before meals.

Eating out of meal-time was always, and is now,
prohibited under somewhat severe penalties. With
respect to that which is said at the end of this chapter
concerning those who refuse to accept any food offered
to them by the Prior, the general impression among
commentators seems to be that our Holy Father is
speaking of those who have been punished by Supe-
riors for not being in time for meals, and who, in
consequence of that punishment, are angry, and, like
children, refuse to eat the food which is placed before
them. St. Benedict wishes that these silly people
should be made to fast until they have acknowledged
their fault, and, by humbly asking pardon for it, have
merited forgiveness. From this little piece of domestic
legislation we may form some estimate of the diffi-
culty which some men must feel in ridding themselves
** of the things of a child."

Satisfaction for Offences. 241

CHAPTER XLIIL

HOW THOSE WHO ARE EXCOMMUNICATJED ARE TO
MAKE SATISFACTION.

Satisfaction for grievous Offences. — As
there are two kinds of excommunication, the greater
and the less, there are also two ways in which expia-
tion must be made for the faults on account of which
this severe penalty is launched against offenders.
These ways are described in this chapter. When the
Abbot perceives that the humiliating course of penance
has produced its effect, he usually calls to the chapter-
house all the brethren, with the exception of the
excommunicate. He there consults with them about
the offending brother, and asks them whether it seems
good to them that he should now be absolved. If
they deem it advisable that he should once again be
admitted to favour, the Abbot sends for the delinquent.
As soon as he presents himself, he prostrates before
the Abbot and then before the assembled brothers,
asking both him and them to pray for him. The form
probably was : " Pray for me, brothers." Then there
was generally inflicted upon him the penalty of the
scourge. After this, the Abbot appointed for him a
place in which to stand in choir. He chanted the
Divine Office with the rest, but was not allowed to
intone a Psalm or to read a lesson, unless a special
order to this effect was issued by the Abbot. After
each of the hours he cast himself prostrate upon the
ground in the place in which he stood, and continued

R

242 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

to do this until the Abbot gave him an order to desist
from this act of humility.

Satisfaction for slight Faults. — He who for
lighter faults is punished with the lesser excommuni-
cation is excluded from the refectory, but not from
the choir. In choir, however, he is not allowed either
to intone a Psalm or to read a lesson. The manner
in which he makes satisfaction for the faults which he
^•has committed, and for which he has been excommu-
nicated, is as follows : at the end of each hour in
choir, he prostrates in the place in which he stands
until the Abbot, seeing that he has been sufficiently
humbled and punished, gives him his blessing and
says, " It is enough." He blessed him by making over
liim the sign of the Cross, and saying, " God bless thee,
because thou hast well performed thy penance."

As to the form which was used in excommuni-
cating delinquents, it is not quite certain whether there
was any fixed one in use in the monasteries. In all
probability the Abbot summoned the brethren to
chapter, and calling the guilty person into the midst
of the room, bade him kneel, and then declared that
for such and such a fault, he excommunicated him, in
accordance with the precepts of the Rule, and in
virtue of the power vested in his person by St. Bene-
dict. If the faults were grave, he said, " I excommu-
nicate you from the choir, the refectory, and the
company of your brethren. No one must speak to
you, under penalty of incurring a similar punishment."
For light faults he said, " I excommunicate you from
the refectory, and in the choir I forbid you to intone a
Psalm or to read a lesson." As all these enactments

Faults in Chtcrch. 243

were well known to the brothers, it was not requisite
for the Superior to specify the mode of punishment,
unless he thought fit to do so. All that he had to
do, was to declare the person excommunicate by the
great or by the less excommunication, and all were at
once aware of what it was necessary for them to do.

CHAPTER XLIV.

OF THOSE WHO COMMIT ANY FAULT IN THE
ORATORY.

Mistakes in Choir. — These may occur in one of
these three ways : ( i ) A person may take up the
wrong verse of the Psalm, or may mispronounce some
words, and cause no inconvenience either to his imme-
diate neighbours or to the side of the choir to which
he belongs. In these cases, only the offender does
penance. (2) He may cause by his mistake some
slight confusion in his immediate neighbourhood
without troubling the choir ; then both he and those
whom his mistake has led into error must atone for
it. (3) The whole choir may be thrown out by his
mistake, and led into error ; then all atone for the
fault. In different monasteries there are different
modes of satisfaction for these faults ; but as a general
rule, those who err without causing any disturbance
to others atone for this by kneeling in their place for a
short time, or by touching the ground with their hands
or with some part of their habit, and then raising
their hand or their habit to their mouth and kissing it.

244 ^^^ Teaching of St. Benedict.

If others are led into error, they also either kneel,,
or act as we have just described. But if the whole
choir is led into error, then the person who has caused
the confusion goes to the steps of the sanctuary, and^
if he is a junior, kneels ; if he is a senior, inclines
until the Superior gives the signal for him to returo
to his place. In all these matters there is a great
variety of practice, which can be learnt only by con-
sulting the ceremonials of the different religious
houses.

The Punishment of Children. — These were
the boys who were offered by their parents to the
monastery, and were intended afterwards to embrace
the religious state. Whenever these made mistakes
in singing the Psalms, the responsories, or the lessons,,
they were chastised by the rod, and that at once ; so
that vengeance was swift of foot, and trod closely upon
the heels of offence. Hildemar forbade this punish-
ment to be administered in the public choir or in the
chapter-house. Their own schoolroom was usually
the scene of these floggings. We may feel quite sure
that the hand which wielded the scourge was a light
and merciful one, as our Holy Father specially orders
any one who went beyond .the bounds of moderation
in this respect to be severely punished for his brutal-
ity. If, from the occasional glimpses given to us in
monastic annals, we may judge of the life which these
little scholars led in the cloister shade, we have every
reason to believe that the occasions when they were
forced to shed tears under the sting of the correcting
rod were few and far between.

Slight Offences. 245

CHAPTER XLV.

OF THOSE WHO OFFEND IN LIGHTER MATTERS.

Confession of Faults. — Whenever a Monk
commits any fault which is the result of carelessness
or of negligence, our Holy Father wishes that he should
humbly confess it to the Abbot, and then, at the pub-
lic chapter of faults, acknowledge it in the presence
of his brethren. The faults thus confessed are external
faults which others have either seen, or might have
seen had they been present. Among those which St.
Benedict mentions are the breaking of any of the
vessels used in the kitchen or at the table ; the spilling
of flour in the bakehouse ; the making an ill use of the
garden tools, and causing either noise or confusion in
silence-time ; speaking without necessity ; talking to
guests without leave ; receiving letters without per-
mission, and the like.

Chapter of Faults. — These ordinary external
faults against discipline were usually confessed in the
presence of the brethren in the chapter-house. This
chapter, as it is called, used to be held every morning
after Prime. In some monasteries there were chapters
three times in each week. After the reading of the Rule,
it was usual on these occasions for the Abbot or the
person who presided to say, " Let us speak about our
Order." Then any of the brethren who had committed
a fault rose from his seat, came into the middle of the
room, and prostrated himself upon the ground before
the Abbot. Thereupon the Abbot said to him,

246 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

"What sayest thou?" The brother answered, *' I
confess my fault." The Abbot then told him to rise.
The brother at once obeyed, and mentioned the fault
of which he had been guilty, received whatever penance
the Superior might think fit to impose, and returned
to his place. If there were any novices present, they
were the first to confess their faults, and having done
so, were dismissed from the chapter. Lay brothers
also retired before the professed choir Monks confessed
their faults.

Denunciation. — It is evident that if the delin-
quent did not make known his fault, it was usual for
some of the others to denounce him to the Abbot.
This was probably the office of the Monk's immediate
Superior, or perhaps of one of those who were present
when the fault was committed. No doubt there was
some time fixed for the confession of these misde-
meanours, and if they were not acknowledged before
the expiration of it, the task of informing the Superior
of them devolved upon the persons who were appointed
for that office. A very unenviable post, we should
think, and one which needed great prudence, charity,
and discretion. Among the members of our own
Congregation no such office either exists, or would
be tolerated by Superiors. If anything goes amiss,
and is of so great importance that the Superiors
should have cognisance of it, there are those who will
fearlessly and conscientiously discharge their duty ;
but as for running to those who are in authority with
an account of every small fault which either envious
or jealous eyes may detect, it does not exist, and if
any one shows a tendency to be a talebearer, the

Slight Offences. 247

Superior has the good sense either to shut his eyes to
that which is thus brought before his notice, or to give
the informer such a reception as will not encourage
him to exercise his self-imposed duty a second
time.

Confession of Sins. — Our Holy Father makes
a wide distinction between the confession of faults
committed against discipline, and the faults and the
sins committed against the law of God. These last
are not to be made the subject of the public chapter^
but are revealed in the sacred tribunal of penance ta
the Abbot or to the priests of the monastery. It is
thought that as the Monks ordinarily approached the
Holy Table on Sundays and on the great festivals,,
they must have confessed at least once in each week.
The place for receiving these confessions was the
chapter-house. He who wished to confess ap-
proached the spiritual father, and laying his hand
on his own breast, thus intimated to him his desire
to approach the Sacrament of Penance. The priest
then led the way to the chapter-house, and took his
seat. The brother prostrated before him. When
ordered to rise he did so, and then sat down beside
his father confessor. The priest then said, " Bene-
dicite." To this the penitent answered, " Dominus.'"
The priest thereupon said, " May the Lord be with
us." To which the penitent answered, " Amen," and
straightway confessed all the faults of which he was
guilty. At the end of his confession he said, " Of
these and of all my other sins I confess myself
guilty, and ask pardon." The priest then imposed
upon him some penitential exercises, gave him abso-

248 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

lution, and dismissed him with some few words of
exhortation and of encouragement.

When the boys of the monastery went to confes-
sion— which was, perhaps, once in each week — they
were conducted by their Master to the Abbot, or to
the priest to whom they wished to confess. While
confessing, instead of sitting, as the Monks did, they
stood by the side of the priest ; and after confession
were conducted back again to their schoolroom by
their Master.

CHAPTER XLVI.

MAKING KNOWN THE HOUR FOR THE *' WORK OF

GOD.''

Announcing the Hours.— It may, at first
sight, seem strange that the duty of giving the signal
for the Divine Office should have been assigned by
St. Benedict to the Abbot or to some careful brother.
But if we bear in mind that all the other duties of the
day depended upon the time at which the work of
God was begun, that this service of praise held the
highest place in his esteem, that there were not any
clocks upon which he could depend, we shall cease to
wonder that a task which is now intrusted to novices
should have been by him confided to the chief
authority in the monastery, or to some person in
whom that authority could repose implicit trust. It
was necessary that the person charged with this duty
should be careful and vigilant ; that he should be able
to calculate the flight of time ; that he should have

Making known the Hours. 249

some skill in marking from the position of the stars,
from the degree of light, from the other signs which
nature gives, what progress the hours had made.
The Abbot, from long experience in monastic life,
would naturally be the person who would be most
likely to possess this skill, and if hindered from per-
forming so important an office, would procure some
brother as well skilled as himself to fulfil its duties
for him.

There were various ways of making known the
time for the Divine Office. In places in which there
were not any bells the brethren were summoned by
the sound of a horn, or by striking with a mallet
upon a wooden box, or by crying in a shrill tone of voice,
'Alleluia." In the daytime, the person whose duty
it was to give these signals was guided by the sun-
dial in his computation of the hours. If the sun was
obscured, he probably relied upon the hour-glass or
on the water-clock. It was necessary, therefore, that
some of the officials should take it in turns to watch,
while the rest of the brethren were asleep, in order to
wake them in due time for the Matin Office.

The Psalms and the Antiphons. — It seems
that the Abbot used to intone the first Psalm or the
first antiphon ; after him the rest of the choir-
brothers, each in his order, intoned the Psalms and
the antiphons which followed ; also, that no one pre-
sumed to do this unless the Abbot had ordered him
to undertake this honourable office, either by pre-
viously telling him to act as antiphoner or as cantor,
or by writing his name upon the list of those who
were deemed capable of fulfilling this duty. For it is

250 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

to be remembered that this was not a duty which fell
to the Monks in order. Only those persons were
suffered to read or to sing who could do so in such a
way as to quit themselves creditably of the one or of
the other, and who, as St. Benedict expresses it, were
thereby able *' to edify the hearers."

Some interpreters maintain that the Abbot was
exempted from the duty of intoning the Psalms and
the antiphons by the words : " After the Abbot, let
those who have been appointed," &c. But the other
view, which holds that he usually began the Psalms, is
more in accordance with St. Benedict's mind. How-
ever, now that so many other important duties are
laid upon his shoulders, and that there are so many
who are well able with credit to perform this office,
the Abbot has been justly freed from this task, except
on the great festivals. By the words, " Let them do
this with humility, with gravity, and the fear of
God," those who are appointed by him to perform the
public function of cantor, or of antiphoner, or of
reader, are cautioned against the spirit of pride which
may endeavour to insinuate itself into their actions.

CHAPTER XLVH.

MANUAL LABOUR.

An Enemy of the Soul. — Idleness is called an
enemy of the soul, because any one who is slothful is
filled with a multitude of evil desires, which destroy
the life of the soul. Idleness is the fruitful source of

Manual Labour. ^^\

0

every species of trifling : it is as hard and as cruel
towards the virtues which ought to be cultivated by
the soul, as a stepmother is proverbially said to be
towards the children who are not her own. When it
enters and takes possession of a man's heart, it does
not enter alone ; there is with it a numerous following
of many other vices, which work his destruction.
Idleness is an occasion of very dangerous temptations :
it begets in the mind a brood of the most hurtful
thoughts ; it paints before the imagination scenes of
the most bewitching pleasures ; it fills the soul with
the thirst of curiosity ; it makes it restless ; it actually
tempts the evil spirits to come and to take up their
abode in the unclean lodging which it prepares for
their dwelling-place. To conquer this enemy, St
Benedict puts into our hands three very effective
weapons — prayer, manual labour, and holy reading.
As he has already in preceding chapters treated at
length of the first weapon, he confines himself in the
present chiefly to the other two, and mentions the
hours for prayer, as it were, only incidentally.

Obligation of Manual Labour. — There have
at various times been many controversies as to
whether St. Benedict meant that which he says in
this chapter concerning manual labour to be a pre-
cept or only a counsel. Those who maintain that he
wished it to be a precept, binding upon all who tread
in his footsteps, rest their argument upon the words
which he uses in speaking about this subject. They
point out -that he says, " The brethren ought to be
employed in labouring with their hands." It is,
therefore, a part of \.\\(t\x duty ; a debt which they

252 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

contract by entering the Order ; a debt which they
must pay, if they wish to remain in it. Work is
imposed upon them by the example which their pre-
decessors have put before them. These, in imitation
of the Apostles, made it a kind of solemn obligation
to live by the labour of their hands. A further
reason proving this is drawn from the very nature of
a monastic life, which is of necessity a penitential life.
Therefore labour which enters so largely into the idea
of penance, labour which is the penance imposed on
man by God Himself, must constitute one of its
primary duties. To these reasons we may add one
other, which is that the absence of labour from a soli-
tary life would be a positive peril, endangering the
mental as well as the moral well-being of those who
undertake it, when robbed of that which is undeni-
ably one of its necessary safeguards.

On the other hand, those who contend that manual
labour is enjoined by St. Benedict only as a counsel,
support their view by the following arguments.
Manual labour cannot be so essential a feature of the
monastic order that if it were abandoned and elimin-
ated from the practice of Monks, they would cease
to belong to the religious state. For many of its
brightest ornaments, both in learning and in sanctity,
never practised this duty of manual toil. But though
not engaged in this commendable and useful exercise
of penance, they considered that they fulfilled the
spirit of the Rule by labouring at that which has
-effectually secured the end intended by St. Benedict
in prescribing manual labour, that is to say, the
avoiding of idleness. Moreover, they thought that if

Manual Labour. 253

they gave themselves up to external works, the
internal spirit of piety would be very materially
weakened. They were led to dispense with manual
labour, or rather they were dispensed from it by com-
petent authority, not only for the reasons already
alleged, but also by the altered circumstances in which
they found themselves. For monasteries were not
built as of old in vast solitudes, nor in places which
were comparatively removed from the abodes of men,,
but were constructed in the very heart of great cities^
in which it would be impossible for Monks to find
these laborious occupations without mixing in the
crowded streets with all classes of men. Besides^
they saw that even in our Holy Father's monasteries
several of the Monks were necessarily exempted from
going forth to field labour, or to works of that kind^
because they were engaged in offices with which such
toil was incompatible. Moreover in these days, and
in fact for many centuries previously, the Monk has
ceased to be occupied as a manual labourer. He has
become a cleric, a priest, a teacher, a preacher, a ruler
in the Church of God ; and by working to the best of
his ability in these various capacities, he complies with
the end which St. Benedict had in view, in ordering
his Monks to labour. As for the example of labour
set us by the Apostles and by the great religious
men of antiquity, all that can be said is that they
adapted themselves to the circumstances of the times
in which they lived, and if they had found themselves
environed by circumstances similar to those with
which we are surrounded, they would have cast aside
the spade and the pickaxe, and have taken up that

254 T^^^ Teaching of St. Benedict.

mental labour in which for centuries past the Monks
have been almost entirely engaged.

From Easter till the First of October. —
After thus stating the views of the opposing parties
on the question of manual labour, we may now pro-
ceed to consider the times which St. Benedict speci-
fies for work, for prayer, and for reading — the three
remedies offered to us by him as antidotes for the
pernicious evils of idleness. Before doing so, we beg
leave to recall to the mind of the reader that our
Holy Father assigned twelve hours to the day and
twelve hours to the night, that these hours were equal
only at the equinox ; consequently, that the night
hours were longer in winter than in summer, and the
day hours longer in summer than in winter. The fol-
lowing table will enable him to see at a glance to what
hours St. Benedict's first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and
sixth hours correspond according to our method of

computation.

DAY.

Morning.

St, Benedict's Time,

Our Time,

Prima hora, first hour .

. Seven o'clock

Secunda hora, second hour .

. Eight „

Tertia hora, third hour .

. Nine „

Quarta hora, fourth hour

. Ten

Quinta hora, fifth hour .

Eleven ,,

Sexta hora, sixth hour .

. Twelve „

Afternoon.

Septima hora, seventh hour .

. One o'clock.

Octava hora, eighth hour

. Two

Nona hora, ninth hour .

. Three „

Decima hora, tenth hour

Four „

Undecima hora, eleventh hour

. Five

Duodecima hora, twelfth hour

. Six

Manual Labour.

255

NIGHT.
Before Midnight.
St. Benedict's Time,
Prima hora, first hour .
Secunda hora, second hour
Tertia hora, third hour .
Quarta hora, fourth hour
Quinta hora, fifth hour .
Sexta hora, sixth hour «

After Midnight,

Septima hora, seventh hour .
Octava hora, eighth hour
Nona hora, ninth hour
Decima hora, tenth hour
Undecima hora, eleventh hour
Duodecima hora, twelfth hour

Our Time.
Seven o'clock.
Eight
Nine
Ten
Eleven
Twelve

One o'clock

Two

Three

Four

Five

Six

In speaking of the hours for reading and for
labour, we will use our method of computing time,
and the reader will be able to refer to the table to
see with what hours these correspond in St. Benedict's
method of reckoning. During the whole period
which intervened between the feast of Easter and the
first of October the brethren went forth to labour
after the hour of Prime, which was said at seven
o'clock. They remained at work until close upon
ten, leaving just sufficient time before that hour to
recite Tierce. From ten till twelve they devoted to
reading. At midday Sext was recited, and then they
took their refection. Immediately after this meal,
those who pleased were allowed to repose upon their
beds until two o'clock. The shortness of the nights
and the summer heats required this midday rest.
Those, however, who preferred to read during this

256 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

time were at liberty to do so, and were told to avoid
everything which might disturb the brethren who had
retired to the dormitory to rest. At two o'clock
None was recited, after which they once more went
forth to labour, and persevered in it till the hour for
Vespers, which were either said or chanted at four
o'clock. At five they had their supper, the confer-
ences were read at six, and the dav ended with Com-
pline.

From the First of October till Lent. —
Prime was said at seven o'clock, after which the
brethren read until nine ; then Tierce was said, fol-
lowed by manual labour till twelve ; at twelve Sext
was said, followed by labour till the first signal for
None. This was given shortly before three o'clock.
At three None was recited. Dinner followed imme-
diately after this hour. From the end of dinner until
Vesper-time, at five o'clock, they gave themselves up
to reading, and to the study and the learning of the
Psalms. There was not any supper allowed during
this season. At six the usual reading of the confer-
ences took place, followed by Compline, and then they
retired to rest.

From Lent till Easter. — During this holy
season the brethren devoted themselves to spiritual
reading from the end of Prime till ten o'clock, at
which hour Tierce was recited. From the end of
Tierce until three they were engaged in manual
labour, with the exception of a short time at midday,
during which Sext was recited. At three None was
recited, and at four Vespers. After Vespers there
must have been some little interval till five o'clock.

Manual Labour. 257

at which hour they took their single meal. The
conferences were read at six, and the day ended as
usual with Compline.

On Sundays. — On these days the Monks read
from the end of Prime until nine o'clock, at which
hour Tierce was recited. Mass and Holy Com-
munion occupied the time until midday, at which
Sext was recited, followed during Paschal-time by
dinner. After dinner there was either the usual
repose or reading. From two till three was devoted
to reading or to prayer. None was recited at three.
Vespers at four ; supper during Paschal-time was at
five ; the conferences were read at six, and the day
ended in the usual manner.

Night Hours during Summer.— They retired
to rest at seven, rose for Matins at midnight, recited
Lauds at four o'clock, and devoted the rest of the
time till Prime to the usual monastic studies.

Night Hours during Winter. — As usual, they
retired to rest after Compline, rose at about half-past
two, began Matins at three ; devoted the time which
intervened between the end of Matins and six o'clock
to the study of the Psalms, &c. ; and at six recited
Lauds.

Night Hours on Sundays and on Feasts.—
The hour for retiring to rest was, as usual, after Com-
pline. At about half-past one they arose ; began
Matins at two ; after Matins, Lauds immediately
followed ; and the rest of the time till Prime was
given to any practices of devotion in which the
Monks chose to employ it.

Distribution of Books.— In the time of St.

s

258 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

Benedict books were so rare that they were as pre-
cious as are silver and gold at the present day.
Oftentimes they were not in sufficient number for
each of the Monks to have one volume assigned to
him for his own use. They were usually kept under
lock and key in a strong chest in the cloister, until
as time went on and their number increased, large
libraries were built for their preservation. The time
chosen by St. Benedict for the distribution of these
volumes among the brethren was the beginning of
Lent. In some monasteries this was made on Ash
Wednesday ; in others, on the first Sunday in Lent ;
in others, on the Monday which follows the first Sun-
day. Hildemar describes for us the manner in which
in his day this ceremony was performed. In the
chapter - house there was first spread before the
Abbot's chair a carpet, upon which the librarian
deposited, with the assistance of some of the brethren,
all the books which were on the shelves of the library
or in the chest in the cloister. When the brethren
were assembled, the librarian first read out a list of
the books which had been distributed in the preceding
Lent, and also the name of the brother to whose care
each volume had been intrusted. As their names
were read out, each brother deposited on the carpet
the book which had been given to him. When this
was done the Abbot gave to each a volume from those
which were lying before him, adapting the work, no
doubt, to the capacity of each of his subjects.

With respect to reading, it is St. Benedict's special
injunction that each brother should read the volume
thus committed to his keeping, not in a desultory

Manual Labour. 259

manner, but from the beginning to the end in an
orderly and complete way, avoiding all levity and
inconstancy. In order to insure this, he commands
the Abbot to select one or two of the elders who are
so mature in mind and so grave in manner as to
compel the respect of all, and to commission them to
go about the monastery during the hours which are
devoted to reading, to see that all are pursuing
their studies with that earnestness and attention
which so profitable an em^ployment deserves. It was
their duty to mark those who were slothful ; wha«
gave themselves up to idleness, or to talking, or
to trifles ; and who, by this misconduct, not only
themselves failed to gather any fruit from their books,,
but were a positive hindrance to others, by distract-
ing their attention, and by preventing them from
applying to their studies with that concentration of
mental power which is productive of such excellent
results. Any one whom they discovered misconduct-
ing himself in any of the afore-mentioned ways they
reported to the Abbot, who first secretly reprehended
him once or twice, and then, if no amendment fol-
lowed, subjected him to that severer course of penance
which usually had the effect of winning him over to-
a more becoming and reasonable method of action..
Those who were either so unlearned or so fickle as to*
be incapable of concentrating their thoughts upon
the pages of a book were set to do some work which
would occupy them, and prevent them from being a
source of trouble and of distraction to others. The
work given to them on Sundays was not manual
labour, but some service in the kitchen or in the

26o The Teaching of St. Benedict.

refectory. Even the weak and the delicate were not
exempted from labour. If they could not read, and
thus usefully occupy their time, there was imposed
upon them some light and easy task, which, while
keeping them from the evil of idleness, was not so
oppressive as to be beyond their strength, and to
cause them to abandon the pursuit of the monastic
life.

CHAPTER XLVIII.

THE OBSERVANCE OF LENT.

Lent. — Our English word Lent does not, like the
Latin word Quadragesima^ give us the idea of the
forty days' fast. Its Anglo-Saxon meaning is the
spring - time — Leneten ; therefore the spring fast.
This penitential season is generally supposed to have
been instituted by the Apostles in order to comme-
morate our Lord's fast. We find it mentioned by St.
Ignatius of Antioch, Tertullian, St. Iraeneus, St. Basil,
and St. Ambrose, as being everywhere received and
practised by the Church. But although universal in
its observance. Lent was not uniform in the manner
in which it was kept, nor in the number of days of
which it consisted, nor in the date at which it began.
Throughout the West, even in our Holy Father's
time, it began upon the first Sunday, and consisted of
thirty-eight fasting-days ; for the Sundays were not
days of fasting.

In the reign of Gregory the Great, the four days

1

The Observance of Lent. 261

beginning with Ash Wednesday were added. In the
East, Lent began on the Monday of Sexagesima week,
and both the Saturdays and the Sundays were excluded
from the fast. From Monday in Sexagesima till
Monday in Quinquagesima they abstained from flesh-
meat ; but from Quinquagesima Monday until Easter
they abstained not only from flesh-meat, but also from
eggs, milk, and fish, and limited themselves, in addi-
tion to this, to only one meal a day. In former
times it was usual to keep four Lents: (i) the forty
days before Easter ; (2) the forty days which pre-
ceded the feast of SS. Peter and Paul ; (3) the forty
days before our Lady's Assumption ; (4) the forty
days before the festival of Christmas.

Monastic LENX.—St. Benedict, considering the
nature of a Monk's life, which is one of mourning, of
penance, and of separation from the world, and remem-
bering how all the great ascetics of former days were
given to the practice of fasting, and to a very austere
method of life, tells us that our lives also ought to
resemble a continual Lent. But because few, even in
his days, were able to endure the bodily rigours which
the fervour and the strength of former times enabled
our predecessors to undergo, he exhorts us, at least in
the time of Lent, to emulate them by a somewhat
more severe treatment of ourselves, and suggests to
us a variety of holy practices, by which we shall be
able to make amends for our want of fervour at other
seasons of the year. These practices may be reduced
to three heads : the avoidance of sin ; the doing of
good ; the practice of some works of supereroga-
tion.

262 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

The Avoidance of Sin. — We are here " to live
in all purity," by which he means the avoiding not only
of all grave sin, but of even those which are usually
looked upon as mere trivial defects. Without this,
bodily abstinence will be but little worth. Therefore,
in these days of Lent, let the Monk repress the curio-
sity of his eyes ; the itching of his ears to catch what-
ever news may be afloat ; the volubility of his tongue
in speech ; the affection of his heart to cling to
creatures. Let him look to his sluggishness in obe-
dience, reluctance of will to submit, and rebellion of
heart against the ordinances of rule.

The Doing of Good. — This is the time in which
to devote himself more especially to his duty of prayer,
and to banish from it all the defects which have been
suffered to creep in. It must not be a sleepy, listless,
inattentive, distracted prayer, but energetic, vigilant,
absorbing the whole mind in the intensity of its fer-
vour. By tearful prayer, St. Benedict does not mean
that we should weep material tears, but that our tears
should be the tears of the heart j a sorrow founded
upon reason ; not evanescent, but abiding in the fixed
resolve never again to betray Jesus Christ. Besides
giving himself up to prayer, the Monk must apply his
mind to reading, in order to acquire that sound doc-
trine which will save him from error, and fill his mind
with a store of learning profitable alike both to him-
self and to others. In prayer he speaks to God ; but
while reading, it is God Who speaks to him, and
whispers into the ear of his heart the suggestions of
the Holy Spirit, by Whose guidance he is led onward
from one degree of perfection to another, till at last

The Observance of Lent. 263

he stands upon the topmost round of the ladder which
enables him to reach the gate of heaven.

Works of Supererogation. — In addition to his
ordinary monastic measure of service, he is exhorted
to add somewhat in various ways. He may, over and
above the Divine Office which he says in choir, offer
up to God other prayers, and devote some further time
to holy meditations upon the Passion of our Divine
Lord. He may withhold from himself some small
portion of his food by not taking all that is allowed,
by abstaining from wine, and drinking only water at
his meal. He may refrain from going to rest for an
hour or more, and may rise more seasonably for the
morning Office, and devote to prayer or to reading
the time that is thus stolen from sleep. He may be
more observant of silence during these holy days,
or, as Lanfranc ordained, he may on three days each
week abstain from the usual recreation. In these and
in various other ways, which a soul that is desirous of
suffering with Christ will know how to invent and to
multiply, a devout Religious will be able to add to the
usual sacrifice of his ordinary daily measure of service.

With Leave of the Abbot. — With prudent
foresight, St. Benedict ordains that no one shall ever
undertake any of these extra works of mortification
without first acquainting his Abbot with that which
he wishes to do, obtaining his permission to do it, and
being assisted by his counsel and his prayers. He
knew full well that, without some such safeguard, there
would be many who, carried away by an indiscreet
zeal, would presumptuously attempt to do that which
is beyond their strength ; who, if they succeeded for

264 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

a time in emulating the virtue and the austerity of
holier souls, would be in consequence puffed up with
vainglory, and fail in winning the heavenly reward.
Therefore he orders every one who wishes to perform
any such acts of mortification to obtain permission to
practise them, and to ask his Superior to pray that
God would bless and make them fruitful in many
graces. The " Regula Magistri " describes the cere-
mony which was observed on these occasions. It
seems that in the beginning of Lent the Abbot first of
all gave a general permission to perform these peni-
tential works of supererogation, in some such form as
the following : " Brethren, he who wishes spiritually
to labour for his souFs well-being, and to abstain from
something which he may lawfully enjoy, has my per-
mission to undertake this good work. But he who
does not wish to act in this way shall receive the usual
Lenten allowance." After this permission, which was
probably given in the chapter-house, each of those
who were willing to perform some work over and above
his accustomed task came before the Abbot in the
oratory, and, humbly kneeling in his presence, first
thanked him for the leave which he had given, and
then told him the particular act of mortification which
he wished to perform during Lent. The Abbot took
into consideration the bodily strength of each of his
children, and either allowed them to carry into effect
that which they had suggested for his approval, or
modified it in such a way as that it would not overtax
nor be a drain upon their strength. Finally, he gave
them his blessing, and prayed God to aid them ia
their penitential exercises.

Brethren away from the Monastery. 265

CHAPTER XLIX.

OF BRETHREN WHO ARE EITHER AT A DISTANCE
FROM THE MONASTERY, OR ON A JOURNEY.

Those who are at a Distance. — In this
chapter St. Benedict instructs those who are working
at a distance from the monastery, and those who are
on a journey, as to the manner in which they are to
say the Divine Ofifice. It is not left to the judgment
of the first to determine what that distance must be
which will excuse them from attendance in choir.
That is a matter for the Abbot's prudent consider-
ation. If he sees that time will be lost in travelling
to and fro, that the work will be postponed which
ought to be performed at once, and that the brethren
will be needlessly inconvenienced by having to tra-
verse some considerable distance, he may dispense
them from joining the bulk of the community in the
oratory. He does not, however, exempt them from
the duty of performing the divine service, although
some, are of opinion that in his time, and long after
it, there was not any grave obligation which bound
even professed Monks to recite the Office.^

Manner of performing the Work of God.
— Therefore those who are exempted by the Abbot

^ Previously to the fourth Council of Carthage (398), we
find no law which enforces the recitation of the canonical hours.
It was very probably in consequence of the forty-ninth canoa
of this particular Council that St. Jerome spoke and wrote
about the Divine Office as being obligatory upon Religious as
well as upon Ecclesiastics.

2.66 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

from joining the brethren, who, at the signal of the
** work of God," have hurried to the oratory, are
ordered by our Holy Father to mark the time at
which these more favoured ones are engaged in
worshipping God, and at the same time to join them
in spirit by performing their measure of divine praise
in the place in which they are labouring. When he
bids them fall upon their knees in order to do this, we
must not suppose that he requires them to remain
kneeling during the recitation of the Psalms. All
that is intended by this phrase is, that they should
kneel at those portions of the Office at which the cere-
monial prescribes kneeling, and on those days and at
those seasons in which this act of reverence is enjoined.
Nor must we suppose that the Monks cast themselves
upon their knees in the place in which they stood, if
it happened to be a wet, miry soil. They had too
much wisdom so narrowly and so literally to inter-
pret the words of one so preeminently broad-minded
and considerate in all his enactments as was our Holy
Father. It is to be presumed, therefore, that they
selected some suitable place in which to say the
Divine Office, and there performed it with all the
reverence which their devout hearts could command.
Those who were on a Journey. — If any
Monk was sent upon a journey, he was cautioned
against suffering the usual hours of prayer to pass by
without offering, during the course of them, his wonted
meed of praise. But he was not expected to observe
all the ceremonies which were looked for from those
who were simply engaged in labour, and who would
have many more facilities for these observances than

Brethren away from the Monastery. 267

he could have. For if he were riding on horseback,
or were seated in a wagon, it would be most incon-
venient for him to dismount or to leave his convey-
ance in order to kneel ; and, therefore, all that St.
Benedict requires from him in these circumstances is
to recite the Divine Office " as best he can." The
Cistercians, however, were so zealous for the literal
fulfilment of the Rule that, when journeying on horse-
back, they were accustomed to dismount in order to
bend the knee at the Pater 7ioster and the collects
which occurred in the course of the Office. Because
the Cluniacs did not do the same, they cast their non-
observance of this rubric in their teeth, as a departure
from the injunctions of the Rule. In answering this
objection, Peter the Venerable says : " Whatever the
Rule ordains on the subject of genuflections during
the course of the canonical hours, we with the utmost
care observe ; for before the beginning of every hour
we religiously bend the knee out of reverential fear
for the Divinity. Sometimes we are hindered from
observing this ceremony by rain, or by snow, or by
the miry condition of the roads. On these occasions
we are accustomed to recite the Miserere^ as a sort

of compensation for the omission of this act of rever-
ence." ^

2 Epist. xxviii. lib, i.

268 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

CHAPTER L.

OF THE BRETHREN WHO DO NOT GO FAR OFF*

Not to eat while Abroad. — Whenever a
Monk was sent from the monastery to transact any
business, he was strictly forbidden to eat while abroad,
even when invited to do so, unless he had the express
permission of his Abbot. This was rarely given,
unless the errand on which he had gone forth detained
him more than one day. At first sight this seems a
hard rule ; and one is surprised that a man of so great
gentleness and mildness as was St. Benedict should
have made and enforced it. But when we come to
consider the dangers and the abuses to which the
opposite line of conduct would open wide the door, we
cannot but admire the far-seeing prudence which
dictated this measure. Some have suggested that one
of the reasons which may have moved him to enforce
this precept was to insure a prompt execution of the
mission upon which any one was sent, and a speedy
return to the monastery.

Without Leave of the Abbot. —St. Bene-
dict himself says that discretion is the mother of
virtues. Therefore he does not make a hard and fast
rule which would banish her from the Abbot's coun-
cils, and abolish the office committed to her care of
smoothing away all asperities from his legislative
measures. Consequently the Superior must always
take into account the circumstances of each case..
He must consider the season of the year, the distance

1

Of the Breth^^en who do not go far off . 269

of the place, the nature of the road, the strength of
the Monk who is about to execute his commission ;
and if he finds that it would be a burden for him to
wait until he returns before taking his refection, he
must give him leave to eat with those by whom he
is charitably invited to refresh himself.

Transgressors to be excommunicated. — If
any one without leave presumed to eat while away
from the monastery, he was on his return, and after
confessing his fault, punished by the lesser excommu-
nication, which separated him from the common table.
If this fault was repeated, or if there were in it circum-
stances calling for a more severe measure of punish-
ment, the culprit ^was first warned and privately
reproved. If no amendment followed, he was sub-
jected to the usual course of monastic discipline. St.
Gregory, in our Holy Father's Life, tells us of some of
the Monks who transgressed the very rule of which
we are speaking. St. Benedict had sent them out to
transact some business, and as they were detained
longer than they expected, they accepted the invita-
tion of a certain religious lady to eat at her house.
On returning to the abbey late in the evening, they
went, as was usual, to receive the Holy Father's bless-
ing. ," Where," said he to them, " have you eaten ?"
*^ Nowhere," they replied. " Why do you tell me an
untruth ?" said he ; *' did you not go into such a
woman's house, and eat such and such kind of meat,
and drink so many cups?" Seeing that he was
cognisant of all that they had been doing, they fell
trembling at his feet, confessing that in disobeying
the Rule they had done wickedly. He straightway

270 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

blessed and pardoned them, being convinced that
they would never again repeat their fault.

CHAPTER LI.

THE ORATORY OF THE MONASTERY.

The Oratory. — At first there was no distinction
whatever between an oratory and a church, except,
perhaps, in size. But when the parochial system
began to be more defined, several distinctions began
to be introduced, the chief of which was that on Sun-
days and on festival days Mass could not be cele-
brated in an oratory. After a time it was ordained
that without the Bishop's leave. Mass could not be
celebrated in oratories, such, for instance, as are those
which are in the houses of private individuals. Then
came another distinction : some oratories were called
private and others public. A private oratory is that
to which the public have not access ; a public oratory
is that to which there is a door giving free access to
all comers. In this latter kind of oratories, in the
oratories of Religious, and in his own palace, a Bishop
may give leave for the celebration of Mass. Also he
has the power to do this in the case of even private
oratories ; but only for a time, and when there is some
just cause which calls for this privilege. Only the Pope
can give a permanent permission for Mass in a private
oratory.

In our Holy Father's time the word " oratory '*

The Oratory. 271

signified the chapel of the monastery. It was the
place in which the Holy Sacrifice was offered and the
Divine Office chanted. There the Monk made his
vows to God ; there the Abbot exhorted and
preached ; there the Holy Eucharist was dispensed.
When faults were committed, expiation was made for
them in the oratory ; when any one wished to read
or to learn the Psalms he went thither ; above all
things, when any one wished to pray, it was in the
calm and silent oratory that he poured out his soul
to God. St. Benedict wished it to be used for no-
thing else than for prayers, or for something which
had a close connection with prayer. " Let it be that
which its name signifies — a place of prayer." It is
God's house, and He has said, " My house shall be
called a house of prayer."

Therefore nothing else than the service of prayer
must be carried on there. No one must use it for the
transaction of any business, for walking, for talking,
for laughing, and each must do his utmost to keep it
strictly as a house of prayer. Nothing must be
stored away or kept there. It is God's house, it is the
abode of the angels, it is the resting-place of the
relics of the sainted men who have been raised for
their holy lives to the altars of God's Church.

After the Work of God. — When the Divine
Office was ended in choir, all had to leave their
places at the sign given by the Abbot, and " in exceed-
ing great silence " to quit the oratory. This was
enjoined in order that a deeper impression might be
left upon the minds of those who had been convers-
ing with God, and standing in the presence of the

^72 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

dread Judge and of the recording angels. Another
reason for this strict silence was that those of the
brethren who might wish to return and spend some
time in devout mental prayer might not be distracted
and disturbed by the sounds of talking. Before leav-
ing the divine presence they were to make a rever-
ence to the altar, or rather to the most Holy Sacra-
ment. At that time this reverence was not a genu-
flection, as at the present day, but a profound bow or
inclination towards the Tabernacle.

It is worthy of remark that St. Benedict, neither
in this chapter nor in any other part of his Rule,
imposes upon his disciples the obligation of purely
mental prayer, although it is evident in what esteem
he held it, from the extraordinary precautions which
he takes to prevent any from being disturbed in their
practice of it. The reason why he prescribes that
they should remain in the oratory for this purpose
is because it was the most private place in the
monastery. The Monks in his day had not, as we
have, private cells in which they could pray, but only
a public dormitory, in which there were necessarily
many things which would distract and disturb them.
Hence the oratory was naturally assigned to them as
the place for this exercise. For many centuries it has
been the custom in our Order to have fixed times each
day for the exercise of mental prayer, which is now
taken in common ; for Superiors, no doubt, saw that
their subjects would not and could not make so great
progress in perfection by the aid of only vocal prayer
as they would by the addition of mental prayer.
Besides, they understood from what St. Benedict has

Entertainment of Guests. 273

ordained for its encouragemient in this and in the
twenty-second chapter, how pleased he is that his
children, in addition to the vocal prayer of the Divine
.Office, should give themselves up also to the practice
of purely mental prayer.

CHAPTER LII.

ENTERTAINMENT OF GUESTS.

The Reception of Guests. — Hospitality has
ever been a distinguishing feature in the Benedictine
Order from its first foundation even unto the present
day. All who presented themselves were received
and entertained as if they were each Christ Himself
This was possible in the early ages of the Order, and
even necessary, as the monastery was, often enough,
the only place at which entertainment for man and
for beast could be obtained iat the end of a wearisome
day's journey. In the present age, however, circum-
stances have so changed in this matter that great dis-
crimination is requisite in admitting to hospitality
those who present themselves, so that only those who
are worthy may be received to partake of our bread
and to drink of our cup. Moreover, the face of society
has undergone such a change since those days of
indiscriminate hospitality, and the conveniences for
travellers are so many and so luxurious, that few
would care to trouble the monastery for its simple
fare and its modest lodging. Even in our Holy
Father's time some discrimination was always used in

T

2/4 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

the entertainment of guests, as we may see from the
fact that more special honour was paid to those who
were " of the household of the faith ;" by which is
meant not only those who professed the Catholic
religion, but also those who were Monks, and were
'Consequently received as members of the same family.
Besides discrimination with regard to the persons who
^were admitted to hospitality, there was a considerable
^difference made in the particular degree of external
honour and reverence which was paid to guests.
Each had given to him that honour which was his
due. A Bishop was received differently from a priest,
a priest differently from a layman, a noble differently
from a peasant. The charity with which each was
entertained was the same, but the honour shown to
^different classes of men varied according to their
worth and to their respective positions in society ;
for the Monks aimed at fulfilling the apostolic pre-
• cept of giving honour to whom honour was due, and in
the measure in which it was due. No doubt the
Abbot went to meet the more distinguished, while
some of the brothers received those who were of
inferior degree.

Mode of Reception. — As. soon as a guest was
announced, the Abbot, or the Prior, or the brethren,
went forth to meet him. That is to say, if the guest
was a noble or a Bishop, the Abbot received him ; if
a priest or a Monk, the Prior ; if a layman of ordinary
•degree, some of the brothers, as we have already said.
The first thing that was done was to pray together :
either the Monk who received the guest said, " Bene-
dicite," and the guest answered, " Deo gratias," or the

I

Entertainment of Guests. 275

guest was conducted straightway to the oratory, and
there some {^sm moments were spent in prayer. Only
after this prayer was the kiss of peace offered to the
stranger. When St. Benedict orders this, he says that
this token of affection must not be given till 'after
prayer, " because of the illusions of the devil." By
these words he refers to several well-authenticated
cases, in which, as it is recorded in the lives of the
fathers of the desert, the devil appeared to them in
bodily shape. Lest anything of the kind should
happen to his own children, he ordains that by means
of holy prayer, before which the evil spirit vanishes
and becomes powerless to work us ill, there should be
applied to every stranger who asks for their hospi-
tality a test, against which no evil spirit can stand.
Any one who will read the life of our Holy Father,
and mark how often he was molested by the angels
of the most wicked one, either in his own person or
in that of his children, will not be surprised that he
should have deemed such a precaution necessary. In
this age of unbelief men will perhaps smile at what
they will deem to be the superstition of a credulous
Monk, forgetting that it is the devil's policy to make
men ignore his existence, and that the Prince of the
Apostles was also superstitious enough to warn us
that " the evil one goeth about like a roaring lion,
seeking whom he may devour." However, whether
the devil does actually appear in human shape, or
does not, the prayer which a Religious in these days
says in his heart before receiving a guest will serve at
least to help him neither to do in the presence of his
guest nor to say anything which might be to him a

276 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

source of disedification. Also, it will enable him ta
preserve himself from suffering any spiritual harm
from any disedifying or from any unbecoming topic
of which his guest may chance to speak.

In this monastic salutation of guests all humility
must be shown. The mind of him who gives the
salutation must subject and put itself beneath him
who is received ; the body must manifest humility by
showing the reverence which is felt by the mind. To
persons of ordinary degree only the head was bowed;
but when prelates or any other Church dignitaries
came to the monastery, those who were sent to enter-
tain them either fell upon their knees before them or
prostrated on the earth in their presence. This was
done, not to the man, nor for the man's sake, but to
Christ, for Whose sake he was received to hospitality.

After the Reception. — After this short prayer,
either the Abbot or some of the brethren sat with the
guest, and, while the meal was preparing, read to
him either the Holy Scripture or some pious book.
In later years it was deemed to be sufficient if the Monk
entertained his guest with some edifying conversa-
tion. At the present day, however, and in these coun-
tries, all these ceremonies in the reception of guests
have been wisely dispensed with, as they would aston-
ish even Catholics, and very probably fill the minds
of non-Catholics with alarm. If, however, the guest
be admitted to the refectory, the rule will there be
carried out for his edification, inasmuch as during all
the meals the divine law and some useful book will
be read to him. All courtesy, both in word and in
deed, is then shown to the guest. If he should chance

Entertainment of Gtcests. 277

to come to the monastery on a day when, by Rule, absti-
nence is enjoined, the Abbot, or the person who is sent
to entertain him, wnll break the abstinence in order to
keep him company. If, however, his visit falls on a
fast-day appointed by the Church, that ecclesiastical
enactment cannot, of course, be set aside, because
over it the Abbot has not any ordinary dispensing
power. In former times the Abbot used to pour
water on the hands of his guest, and the whole brother-
hood used to assemble to wash his feet, which were
probably sore with travel. Not, of course, that all
either did or could take part in this office of charity,
but by their presence, and by their chanting of the
Psalms, which usually accompanied this ceremony,
they might be said morally to take part in it.

The Poor and Strangers.— St. Benedict knew
quite enough of human nature to understand that, in
spite of all his legislation, it would assert itself, and
dominate the best intentions of even the most exem-
plary. Therefore, after reminding his Religious that
it is Christ Whom they are to respect, to honour, to
entertain in their guests, and not their wealth, or their
rank, or their dignity, he furthermore takes care to
recommend to their special care and charity the poor
and strangers^ who bear a greater resemblance to our
Lord, Who for our sake became poor. The glamour
which surrounds a titled personage, or one who
is rich, or one who is powerful, is quite enough to
secure him obsequious attention. Not so the poor,
who, notwithstanding that they are our Lord's re-
presentatives, would often enough be treated with
but scant courtesy, unless men strive to keep alive

^7^ The Teaching of St. Benedict.

their faith, and to make the words of our great Law-
giver ring in their ears with a peal so shrill that no
worldly consideration can drown them.

The Abbot's Kitchen. — Our Holy Father gives
the chief reason why this, as well perhaps as the
guest-house, and the table at which the guests dined,
should stand apart from the rest of the monastery.
Guests were nearly always either coming or departing,
sometimes in considerable numbers ; and consequently
the work in the kitchen was well-nigh continual. If
the same kitchen had to serve for the community
and for the guests, there would undoubtedly be occa-
sions when the preparations for the simple meals of
the brethren would be disturbed, and the order of the
monastery seriously interfered with. To avoid this,
the Abbot's kitchen A^as therefore a building distinct
from that of the monastery.. Another reason might
be that more dainty fare had to be cooked in the
Abbot's kitchen, for the sake of the distinguished
guests who not unfrequently honoured the Monks
with their company. We may infer this from the fact
that two brethren, who doubtlessly had some, skill in
cooking, were deputed for the service of this kitchen
{ox 2. year. The brethren did not succeed one another
in this department, as they did in the monastery
kitchen, in which very little skill was required to pre-
pare the Lenten fare of which they ordinarily partook.
Whenever there was a more than usual influx of
guests these two brothers were aided by some others,
in order that they might not be overworked, nor their
patience overtaxed to such a degree as to cause them
to give way to murmuring, which St. Benedict held

Entertainment of Guests. 279

in such utter detestation. But if ever it chanced that
there were either very few guests, or perhaps not any,
the cooks had to take their share in the common
labour in which the rest were employed. Not only
the cooks, but all the other brethren who were
intrusted with any office, were helped in their duties,,
whenever, through some unforeseen circumstances, a.
more than usual strain was put upon their strength.

The Guest-Master. — It is evident from the-
Rule that this official did not exist in St. Benedict's
day. There was, indeed, an official whom we might
call " a guest-brother," inasmuch as the care of the:
guest-house was intrusted to him. He was one over
whose heart the fear of God held sway, that, in con-
sequence of his continual intercourse with externs, he
might neither receive any spiritual harm, nor by his
evil behaviour give an occasion of scandal to those
who came to the monastery to be edified. At the
present day there is ii) every monastery one of the
Fathers who is chosen by the Prior for the express
purpose of receiving and of entertaining guests. He
is usually a man who is prudent in speech, polished
in manner, and modest in demeanour. His duties
are to see that all the guest-rooms are kept neat,
clean, and well supplied with all necessary furniture.
When a guest is announced, it is he who goes to meet
him, and, before doing anything else, conducts him
to the Superior. He provides for all his wants, keeps
him company, and shows him all that courtesy which
St. Benedict orders. The rest of the brethren do not
speak to the guest, unless he is introduced to them by
the Superior. If any of them is accosted by a guest^.

28o The Teaching of St. Benedict.

he must speak to him with all politeness, and, after
answering his questions, excuse himself with the best
possible grace from holding any further converse
with him, on the ground that all such intercourse is
forbidden by the Rule.

CHAPTER LIII.

RECEPTION OF LETTERS OR OF PRESENTS.

Letters. — St Benedict, treading in the footsteps
of those saintly men from whom he had learnt all the
discipline of the monastic life, forbids his children to
receive from others, to send to them, or to one another,
any letters, unless for so doing they have the permis-
sion of their Abbot. Why was he so careful to shut
even this door of communication with the outside
world, and to suffer it to be opened only with his
leave ? It was to hinder those who had, with mature
deliberation, turned their backs upon the world from
wistfully looking out upon it once again ; for, by
means of letters, they would be able to keep alive
with worldly men that familiarity which might induce
them to repent of the step which they had taken, and
thus make their solitude distasteful to them. After
once burying themselves in its peaceful depths, it was
their duty to avoid everything which might disturb
its repose. Letters would undoubtedly do this ; for
they would recall memories, and revive affections
once entertained with joy, but now sacrificed for a
higher good ; they would awaken anxieties ; they

Reception of Letters or of Presents. 281

would provoke curiosity ; they would, in one word,
introduce a disturbing element which might so seri-
ously trouble that Benedictine quies which it was our
Holy Father's aim to establish in the heart, as to
induce him who had come to seek it in the cloister to
fancy that he was in pursuit of what could not there
be found, and to make him once again launch out
upon the sea of a secular life. Therefore it is that he
wisely prohibits his subjects either to send or to
receive letters, unless for so doing they have the
Abbot's leave. This will doubtless be given only to
those who will make a discreet use of it, and to whom
such a concession will not bring any harm.

Tokens {eulogio^ evXoylai).' — There are" various
meanings given to this word. Eulogia may be taken
to mean : (i) any gift which is bestowed out of affec-
tion for any other person : in the Scripture it is called
a blessing ; (2) gifts of sacred relics or of objects of
piety; (3) bread destined for the Holy Eucharist ;
(4) the Holy Eucharist itself ; (5) altar-breads blessed
and distributed before the principal meal to those
who had not communicated at Holy Mass ; (6) any
object which has received the blessing of the Church ;
(7) common bread sent as a token of benevolence or
of love ; (8) good words spoken in praise of any one.
It is thought that St. Benedict takes eulogia to niean
something which is superadded to the letter, a small
gift, such as a picture or a relic, or anything of that
kind. The word munuscMla (small presents), which
follows, seems to indicate that this is the idea which
he wishes to convey. He prohibits these as well as
letters, in order that neither useless nor dangerous

282 The Teaching of SL Benedict.

friendships may be fostered between a Monk and any
one whom he has left in the world, or between one
Religious and another. Such friendships are often
very destructive of the true monastic spirit, and there-
fore must be carefully avoided.

These Gifts are at the Abbot's Disposal. —
If any presents are sent to any Monk, either by his
relatives or by his friends, he cannot accept them
without leave of the Abbot ; and when they are ac-
cepted, the Abbot may give them to whomsoever he
pleases. Why is this ? It is because Religious by
their vow of poverty cannot be the proprietors or
owners of anything. Ownership in all things belongs
to the community. But as all authority is vested in
the Abbot, who rules the community, the power to dis-
tribute the goods of the community, or, at least, those
goods which are not of any great value, is in his hands.
He has the power not only to distribute, but also to
transfer the ownership from the community to any
one else. This power, however, is now modified and
regulated by the canon law of the Church. Whenever,
therefore, any present is sent to a Religious, he must
remember that it is not his, and that he cannot accept
it unless permission is granted by his Superior. If
that permission is withheld, he must not be grieved ;
he must look upon whatever has been sent as the
community's public property, over which he has not
any more right than arty other member of the brother-
hood. It is very important that these ideas should ever
be kept clearly before the mind. If they be not, there
will creep in the vice of ownership, than which nothing
is more destructive of the religious spirit. Our Holy

Clothing. 283

Father orders that all those who presume to receive
these letters, tokens, and little presents, without first
obtaining leave for them, shall be subjected to the
punishments which are appointed by the Rule. As
we have already, in several other parts of this work,
spoken about these, nothing further need here be said
about them.

CHAPTER LIV.

CLOTHING.

Clothing.— We may infer from the words with
which St. Benedict opens this chapter that he had
some knowledge of the future spread of his Order
throughout the world. Therefore it does not specific-
ally mention either the quantity or the quality of the
clothing which his followers are to use, but leaves that
to be regulated in accordance with the requirements
of the climate of the country in which they live. If it
happens to be a cold, inclement place, then let them
use woollen stuff; but if it is warm and genial, let them
adapt their clothing to the temperature of the air in
which they have to live and to work. The arrange-
ment of all this is left, as usual, to the discretion of
Superiors. Nevertheless, wishing to give some sort
of standard from which they may judge of that which
is necessary, he himself takes what we may call a
golden mean, and for moderately temperate climates
deems it to be sufficient for them to have a cowl, a
tunic, a scapular, and shoes and stockings. In winter,
this cowl is to be of thicker stuff; in summer, of some

284 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

material which will enable them, without grave incon-
venience, to endure the heat of the sun. It would be
useless to attempt to discuss all the details into which
various commentators have entered with respect to
the afore-mentioned articles of clothing. From that
which they have written, we have been able to gather
that at first the cowl was not so long as it is at present,
and was without sleeves. The hood was almost coni-
cal in shape, and came down upon the neck. The
tunic was short, reaching a little below the knees.
The scapular, as its name implies, was at first destined
to cover the shoulders, and by degrees became so long
as to reach down to the middle of the body. To this,
the hood, in later times, was attached. With this the
Monks were clothed when they went forth into the
fields to their daily toil. Although nothing whatever
is said in this or in any other part of the Rule con-
cerning linen shirts, or that which is equivalent to
linen, yet we may infer from the fact that, in point of
clothing, he leaves much to the discretion of the
Abbot, and does not in this chapter speak determin-
ately on the subject, but in a hesitating sort of way,
saying " we thinkl' we are inclined to believe that the
Monks used to wear some such article of clothing
under their tunics.

Our Holy Father did not require his children to go
barefoot, but ordained that they should wear stockings
and shoes. Some are of opinion that the stockings
{caligce^ were a kind of hose reaching to the ankle ; that
in addition to these, the Monks had socks which joined
the hose at the ankle, but which were not of one piece
with it. Hence they translate the word pedules —

Clothing. 285

which is usually rendered shoes — by the word socks.
They are induced to do this because they think that
these were taken off when the Monks went to rest,
but that the hose was not. Moreover, this division of
the socks from the hose would facilitate the process
of washing, which this part of what we may call their
" stockings " would need more frequently than the
hose. But if this is a true interpretation of the passage,
what other enactment is there in the Rule which
orders us to wear shoes ? Those who have attached
this meaning to the word pedules tell us that though
St. Benedict does not elsewhere speak of shoes, yet
he intends his children to wear them ; for he never
would wish the socks to serve as shoes. We must
confess that we do not feel inclined to follow this in-
terpretation. Pedules well very well bear the meaning
shoes ^ while the other interpretation seems to us some-
what forced and unnatural.

With respect to the clothes which are given to
them. Monks are specially warned not to complain
either of their colour or of the coarseness of the mate-
rial out of which they are made. From this it must
not for a moment be supposed that the brethren were
clad in raiment of different colours, one wearing black,
another brown, another gray. All wore the same
colour, but in that there may have been various
shades, some being blacker than others. Also there
may have been various degrees of coarseness. But
of these merely accidental differences they were not
to make any account, but to be content with that
material which could be procured in the place in
which they lived and be bought at a cheap rate.

2 86 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

Whatever clothing was given to them was so made
as to fit them. Their tunics and their cowls were to
be neither too short nor too long. If they were too
short, they would make those who wore them ridicu-
lous in the eyes of men ; if they were too long, they
would give them the air of aiming at effect, by striv-
ing to imitate the pomp and the state of high digni-
taries. When their garments were worn out, new
ones were provided for them, and the old were laid
up in the wardrobe for the use of the poor. As the
Monks in our Holy Father's day and for centuries
afterwards were accustomed to sleep in their habits,
it was necessary that they should have two, one for
day and one for night use. Also that they might
have one habit to wear while the other was washing.

Whenever they were sent on a journey they were
to receive a somewhat better habit than was that which
they ordinarily wore, in order not to attract the atten-
tion of those whom they might chance to meet by
the sordid nature of their garments, or by a too great
trimness of dress. This conduct is just the reverse
of that which is practised by those who, like the
Pharisees, aim at making an impression, and there-
fore purposely put on a worse dress when they go
forth among men than is that which they usually
wear in the monastery.

Bedding. — Passing from the clothes which they
wore to those with which they were covered when they
retired to rest, St. Benedict mentions four articles,
the nature of each of which we must endeavour to
explain.

Maita. — At first, and especially among the

Clothing. 287

Egyptian Religious, this was a mat woven out of
reeds, or straw, or grass. The Monks used this as a
bed on which they slept during the night-time, as a
seat upon which they rested during the day, as a stool
upon which they knelt when they prayed, and, when
strewn with ashes in the last moment of their mortal
life, as a penitential instrument upon which they
died.

Sagum. — Among the Romans this was the name
given to a long military garment, which soldiers were
accustomed to wear over their armour. It was made
of some thick coarse woollen stuff, approaching in
texture somewhat the nature of a sack. Whether
this was laid upon the mat as a kind of rug, or whether
it was stuffed with wool or with hair, no one seems
able to determine.

Lena. — Besides the matta and the sagum, St.
Benedict allows what he calls a lena. This seems
to have been a large square rug or blanket made of
coarse woollen stuff. With this the Monks covered
themselves when they lay down to rest. If we bear,
in mind that they slept in their habits, with the hood,
which was fastened to their scapular, drawn over their
heads, we shall see that they were plentifully supplied
with clothing, and sufficiently defended against the
cold of the winter nights.

Capitale. — Under the head of each Monk there
was placed a capitale or bolster. This was in all like-
lihood stuffed with wool, with hair, or with straw, and
served as a pillow.

We may say, therefore, that the word matta will
represent a straw mattress ; sagum^ some woollen

2 88 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

substance stretched over it ; lena^ a thick rug or
blanket ; and capitate^ a pillow or bolster.

Our Holy Father orders the Abbot frequently to
visit these beds on which the Monks reposed, in order
to prevent any of them who might be addicted to the
vice of keeping anything without leave, from conceal-
ing these articles in his bed, which was the only place
in which it was possible for him to hide them from
the sight of his brethren. Hence, from time to time,
when all were assembled at chapter, the Abbot called
attention to this point of the Rule, and nominated
several of the most discreet to go and perform this
duty for him. These at once left the chapter-house,
proceeded to the dormitory, and searched all the beds.
If they found anything in the way of food, or cloth-
ing, or money, they brought it back with them, and
laid it at the feet of the Monk in whose bed it had
been discovered. If he could not satisfactorily
account for it, he was punished in proportion to the
gravity of the fault, and to the frequency with which
he had been guilty of it.

All necessary Things were given to them.
— In order to prevent them from having any excuse
for these faults against the vow of poverty, St. Bene-
dict orders the Superior of each monastery to give to
his subjects all those various articles which he deems
necessary for them. Of their clothing we have already
spoken ; but, in addition to this, he mentions several
other articles, of which it will not be out of place to
say a few words.

Bracile.' — As far as we can make out from the
description which St. Isidore gives of this article of

Clothing. 289

dress, it seems to have been " a strip of linen or of
woollen cloth, which, beginning at the arms, went up
to the neck, crossed the back, was drawn round the
waist, and fastened there." That which will perhaps
give us the best notion of it is the priest's amice,
which he puts upon his neck, draws the strings across
his breast, under his arms, and then ties them round
his body. Some commentators think that the bracile
was a belt worn next to the skin, and that the hose
which the Monks wore v/as fastened to it. If this
meaning be accepted, the bracile would resemble our
braces^ especially if we remember how St. Isidore
endeavours to describe the bracile for us.

CULTELLUS (a knife). — Of this we have already
spoken, when treating of the way in which the Monks
are to sleep. They carried it in a sheath by their
side, and used it for all the various purposes for which
we at the present day use this same kind of article.

Graphium (a pen). — Of this also mention has been
made in a preceding chapter, in which we said that
it was probably the stylus of the Romans, pointed at
one end, for the purpose of writing on tablets covered
with wax, with which also the Monks were provided,
and flat at the other, for the purpose of smoothing
away any mistakes which they might make in writing.

Acus (needles). — The reason why each Monk
was furnished with needles was to enable him to
mend his habit whenever it was either torn or worn
away in any place. Hence St. Benedict, by giving
him these, insinuates his wish that his children
should never be seen in torn or in tattered garments,
and that they should never be ashamed either to wear

U

290 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

those which are patched, or to be engaged in the
humble work of mending their own clothes.

Mappula (a handkerchief). — This was hung from
the girdle, and was very useful and necessary for
wiping off the perspiration which covered their faces
in the laborious occupations in which they were daily
engaged.

In distributing these various articles, and in sup-
plying all the other wants of the less robust and of
the very sickly and delicate, the Abbot is to be guided
by the principle upon which the Apostles acted :
namely, that the needs of each person are to deter-
mine the measure of that which is to be given to him.
These needs he must keep always in view, and do
his utmost to satisfy, turning a deaf ear to the mur-
muring and the dissatisfaction displayed by those who,
either through envy, or through a niggardly spirit,
exclaim against what to them may seem to be either
over-indulgence or prodigality. Let him despise the
judgment of such men as these, and strive to act in
so upright a way as to win the approval of the just
judgment of God.

CHAPTER LV.

THE abbot's table.

The Abbot's Table. — This short and appar-
ently simply and clearly expressed chapter, has given
rise to a great deal of discussion among the commen-
tators. " Did the Abbot's table," they ask, " stand

I

The Abbot's Table. 291

apart in another chamber distinct from the refectory
of the community ? or was it in the common refectory,
but apart and somewhat raised above the tables at
which the Monks took their refection ?" The answer
to this question has divided these learned men into
two opposite camps : first, those who maintain that
the Abbot's table was in the common refectory of the
monastery ; and secondly, those who contend that
it was not, but stood in the hall of the guest-house.

In the common Refectory. — Those who up-
hold this view support it by these arguments. First,
there is not in the Rule a single passage in which St.
Benedict speaks of a particular room in which the
Abbot is to dine with the guests. Therefore the
Abbot's table must have stood in the usual place in
which the brethren took their meals. Secondly, it is
the wish of the Fathers of the monastic life, of whose
sentiments on this very question there is abundant
proof in the pages of Cassian's Conferences, that the
Abbot should not absent himself from the common
table of the Monks. Thirdly, in the thirty-eighth
chapter of the^Rule, St. Benedict, while strictly prohibit-
ing any one from speaking in the refectory, or from
asking any questions about that which is read during
meals, makes an exception in favour of the Prior — by
which title, say the upholders of this view, is meant
the Abbot, inasmuch as the words Abbot and Prior
are here synonymous. Now, if the Abbot were scarcely
ever in the refectory, but had his meals in another
room altogether distinct from it, this piece of legis-
lation would be superfluous. Fourthly, this continual
absence from the common table would give occasion

292 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

to the Abbot always to be in the company of secular
persons ; always to have his ears filled with worldly
talk and with worldly news ; always to be faring
more daintily than did his brethren. From these
and from other reasons they conclude that the Abbot's
table was in the common refectory, but apart from
the tables of the brethren.

In a Room apart from the Monastery.—
It seems to us that this is the more reasonable opinion
of the two, and that the proofs which support it are
stronger than those which are adduced to defend the
other. The Rule itself seems to point to a separate
refectory when it orders that the Abbot's kitchen
should be distinct from the common kitchen, in which
the meals were cooked for the community. The rea-
son assigned for this is that the brethren may not be
disturbed by the arrival of guests, who are nearly
always in the monastery. As these guests came at
all hours, sometimes long before the brethren had
their repast, sometimes long after it, it is but natural
and reasonable to suppose that their host the Abbot
would never make these faint and hungry visitors
wait till the usual hour at which the brethren either
dined or supped in the refectory. Therefore it is
most likely that there was in the guest-house some
special hall or room in which his table stood, at which
he entertained those who arrived at unseasonable
hours. Moreover, whenever there were but few guests
the Abbot was empowered to invite to his table any
of the brethren whom it might please him to honour
in this way. St. Benedict by this ordinance doubtless
wished to give the Abbot an occasion of showing his

Artificers of the Monastery. 293

paternal goodwill and tenderness to his children.
Another reason which seems almost directly to imply
the existence of a separate refectory for the Abbot
is the remark which follows immediately after this
concession. " Care must be taken," says our Holy
Father, "that one or two seniors be always left
with the brethren for the sake of discipline." Those
who defend the other view would have it that this
might refer to those large communities in which there
were so many Monks that the Abbot's eye could not
command them all. But if we remember the small
communities of twelve or of twenty-four Religious,
whom St. Benedict supposes to be numerous enough
to place under the guidance of one Abbot, and that
he did not contemplate the great communities which
filled some of the more celebrated monasteries of the
Middle Ages, this answer falls to the ground. Lastly,
the permission given to the Abbot to break the fasts
of the Rule, in order to keep the guests company,
shows us almost beyond doubt that the Abbot had
his table in a part of the monastery different from
the refectory and the table of the rest of the Monks.

CHAPTER LVI.

ARTIFICERS OF THE MONASTERY.

Artificers.— The Spirit of God, breathing where-
soever it may please Him, inspires and moves to em-
brace religious life men of every class in society. Not

294 The Teaching of St. Benedict,

only the learned and the wealthy, but the poor and
the uncultured, many of whom, though not skilled in
the learning of the schools, are yet adepts in the
various crafts by which men are supplied with the
necessaries and the conveniences of life, feel this gen-
tle urging of the Holy Ghost, and, leaving all things,
resolve to devote themselves wholly to the service of
God. These gathered round St. Benedict, just as they
gather round his successors at the present day. They
are joyfully received, and when received must be
supported. But as men are then truly Monks when
they live by the labour of their hands, it was our
Holy Father's will that the artisans who joined him
should contribute somewhat to their own livelihood,
by using that skill wherewith God had endowed them,
in procuring bread for their own and their brethren's
support. Yet, though glad of their aid in this impor-
tant particular, he does not suffer them to exercise
their various crafts without the permission of the
Abbot. Why is this ? Because when a man comes
to religion, he comes to subdue and to subject his will.
By his vow of obedience, his will, in all lawful
matters, and his very body, are in the hands of his
Superior, to whom for God's sake he subjects himself.
Therefore, whatever art he may possess is at the
Superior's disposal. If he should wish him to exer-
cise it, he will tell him to do so; if he should not, the
subject must not chafe under his apparent neglect of
him, but humbly and simply bury his talent till such
time as it shall please his Superior to bid him draw it
forth and exercise it.

Not allowed to Work. — As one of the chief

Artificers of the Monastery. 295

ends of the religious life is to root out of the heart all
pride, and to remove from the path of the Monk
everything which tends to foster this malignant spirit,
our Holy Father orders that the brother who is
puffed up on account of the skill with which he is
endowed should be forbidden to exercise his craft,
of whatever nature it may be, until by self-abasement
he has given sufficient proof that he has mastered the
evil which was undermining his spiritual life. We
must take notice that what is here said of handicrafts
holds good also of all other excellences with which
any one may be endowed. In these days there are
among us but few painters, or carvers, or workmen
skilled in any other of the various crafts. But there
are men who are good preachers, good professors,
good disputants, sweet singers, skilled musicians, able
writers, prudent administrators, and the like. All
these exercise their respective talents at the command
of Superiors ; and it is the duty of these Superiors to
guard their subjects against the demon of pride.
Therefore, whenever any of those who depend upon
them give signs of being elated with the skill which
he possesses, he ought straightway to be admonished ;
and if no amendment follows this admonition, he
ought to be forbidden to exercise that talent which
has become for him a snare, in which, being en-
tangled, he may lose the life of his immortal soul.

Sale of Artificers' Work. — The Egyptian
Monks were in the habit of selling the various articles
which they manufactured. They did this both to
procure for themselves the means of subsistence, and
to enable themselves to help those who were in need.

296 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

St. Benedict in this respect follows their example,
and allows the product of his children's labour to be
sold for their support. It is generally supposed that
the Deans had the full management of all these
business transactions. Therefore they are especially
cautioned against allowing the spirit of avarice to
creep into their souls. To aid them in excluding
this subtle demon from gliding in, the terrible fate
which befell Ananias and Saphira is put before them.
For if they were to act in opposition to St. Benedict's
will, and to sell at a higher rate than he would have
them sell, and keep the surplus, they would certainly
incur the death of the soul, as the unhappy pair did
the death of the body. From these words of our
Holy Father it is thought that, like many very trust-
worthy authorities, he held that these two are not
lost, but that only temporal death was inflicted upon
them as a penalty for their sin. In order that his
children might prove to those who purchased from
them the various objects which they sold that gain
was not their aim, but only labour, and the remu-
neration due to the workman for his toil, those who
sold were ordered to sell at a somewhat lower rate
than did the ordinary merchants who trafficked for
gain. In this way glory would be given to God, not
only by their labour, but also by that w^hich resulted
from their labour ; thus in all things His glory would
be the end and the aim of the Monk's existence.

Reception to Religion. 297

CHAPTER LVII.

MANNER OF RECEIVING BROTHERS TO RELIGION.

The Postulant. — It was usual in the early days
of monasticism to receive to the brotherhood all
those who asked for admission. It mattered not whe-
ther they were known to the community or were not,
whether they came with letters of recommendation
or without them : provided that they wished to seek
God and to save their souls they were welcome, and
were enrolled among the soldiers of the Cross. But
though none were refused, yet all had to give a sub-
stantial proof of their earnestness. They were not at
once admitted to serve in the ranks of those who
were subject to the stern discipline of the cloister.
Some reluctance was always shown to their reception.
For it is not always God's Holy Spirit Who leads men
to religious life. Many inferior selfish motives assume
the place of that infallible guide, and often enough
persuade men to believe that they are influenced by
the Holy Ghost, whereas it is self-interest, love of what
appears to be an easy mode of existence, blighted
hopes, disappointed ambition, and a thousand other
equally worthless reasons, which are impelling them
to enter a service for which they are in nowise quali-
fied. Hence the necessity for some test which will
speedily make the spirit by which men are led declare
itself. This test was usually a plain, straightforward
declaration on the part of the brotherhood that they
did not seek for postulants ; that they were not eager

2gS The Teaching of St. Benedict.

to receive them ; that they suspected some unworthy-
motive on the part of the applicant ; that it was
poverty, or inability to procure a livelihood, or dis-
grace, or a desire to better his condition, and not a
firm resolve to serve God and to save his soul which
brought him to the gates of the monastery. If, not-
withstanding all this difficulty made about his recep-
tion, he persevered in his petition, leave to enter was
ordinarily granted at the end of four or five days.
Even after this he was not allowed to begin his year
of probation, but was detained in the guest-house
until the persons appointed to entertain strangers had
had a sufficiently long time to discover his character,
and the spirit by which he was actuated. Then he
was either received into the novitiate, or told, in
God's name, to depart, and endeavour to work out
his salvation in some other path of life.

In these days, however, no one is admitted to be
a postulant unless he is either known to the Superiors
or has been recommended to them by those upon
whose judgment they can rely. If he is a total
stranger, he is received into the monastery, and lives
with the community for about three months, or for
even a longer period, that his natural character and
his disposition may be seen by them. Thus they are
enabled to form some estimate of his worth ; and
when the time comes for deliberating about his
admission, they are able to give a rational vote either
for his reception or for his rejection.

Reception to the Novitiate. — From the Rule
itself we cannot gather whether there was any cere-
mony observed in accepting to the novitiate those

Reception to Religion. 299

who made applications for that honour. But we can
plainly see that those who were thus admitted did not
at that time receive the monastic dress. They very
probably wore the clothes in which they came to the
monastery. At present there is a ceremony observed
in the reception of novices. For eight days previously
to their " clothing," as it is called, they devote them-
selves to the exercises of a spiritual retreat, under the
guidance of one of the Fathers. During the course
of this retreat they make a general confession of their
whole life, that they may begin their religious career
with a conscience perfectly at rest and free from every
disturbing scruple. On the day upon which they are
to be clothed in the monastic habit they approach to
Holy Communion ; and in the afternoon, when Ves-
pers have been recited, and the community have been
assembled in the chapter-house, they are introduced
by the novice-master. As soon as they come before
the Superior they prostrate upon the earth, and
remain in this lowly position till he gives them a
signal to rise. They at once obey, and, kneeling,
await the question which he puts to them : " What
seek ye, dearest brethren ?" They reply : " If it should
please God and you, I desire to save my soul among
you, under the Rule of our most Holy Father St.
Benedict." After making this humble petition they
once again fall prostrate, and when the Superior
gives them the signal to rise they do so, but remain
kneeling as before. In a few words all the difficulties
of the monastic life are then laid before them, and
they are asked whether they are willing to persevere in
their petition, notwithstanding these serious obstacles.

30O The Teaching of St. Benedict.

They reply, " It is my wish and my desire to do so,
by the aid of divine grace." The Superior then says,
^* May God give you the grace effectually to accom-
plish your holy desire and to merit life eternal." To
this prayer the assembled brethren answer, *' Amen."
Thereupon all kneel, and the Superior intones the
Veni Creator^ which the community sing in alter-
nate strophes. After the first strophe the Superior
rises, and taking his seat, begins the ceremony of the
clothing by taking off each of the postulants the secu-
lar coat in which he is clothed, and vesting him in the
tunic, scapular, cowl, and hood of the Order, accom-
panying each of these actions by an appropriate
prayer.

When all are duly clothed, the prayers which are
ordered in the monastic Ritual are said, and then
each of the recently-clothed postulants, approaching
the Superior, receives from him, and after him from
each member of the community, the kiss of peace, in
token of admission to brotherhood. At the end of
this ceremony, once again kneeling before the Supe-
rior, they listen to a few further words of exhortation,
and receive from him a new name, by which they are
afterwards known in religion. From that moment
their year of probation begins, and, as our Holy
Father ordains, they are conducted by their master
into the novitiate. In St. Benedict's day the novitiate
stood apart from the monastery, and apparently those
who were undergoing probation lived there, as it were,
in quite a separate establishment. At present, novices
are kept aloof from the community, as far at least as
that is possible ; but nevertheless they live in the same

Reception to Religion. 301

monastery and attend all the ordinary duties, but
are never allowed to speak with the professed Monks^
unless they receive an express permission from the
Superior and from their master. The time of proba-
tion lasts for a whole year, and cannot be shortened
as it could be in former times, before the Church had
legislated for all these matters. Novices are some-
times admitted to profession when they are threatened
with death, but always on the condition that if
they recover they must complete the full year of
novitiate.

The Novice-Master. — As soon as the novice is
clothed in the religious habit and admitted to the
novitiate there is placed over him as his master one
of the seniors, to instruct him in all the duties of the
monastic life. St. Benedict gives three marks which
are to guide Superiors in their choice of the novice-
master. He must, in the first place, be an elderly
man, if not in years, then in virtue and in the ma-
turity of his character. For no one can successfully
instruct others in the science of spirituality by mere
book-learning only. His knowledge must be experi-
mental as well as scientific. He himself must have
gone through all its duties and encountered its many
difficulties, and tested the weight of the yoke which
it imposes. This will give an authority to his words>
and infuse into them a persuasive power which can-
not be acquired either from books or from the closest
mental application. In the next place, he must, as
St. Benedict expresses it, " have the address of win-
ning souls to God." This consists in knowing how
to point out to those who ask him for instruction the

302 The Teaching of St. Beneaict,

surest way of going to God ; in being adorned with
all virtues, so that his daily life will be the best com-
mentary upon the doctrine which he imparts to others ;
and in a wide and deep knowledge of spiritual things.
This skill is acquired and developed by seclusion from
the turmoil of worldly affairs, by the cultivation of
repose and peace of soul, by an ardent love of God,
by the repression of anger and of impatience, by the
elimination of proud and vainglorious thoughts, and
by constancy in the service of God. Lastly, he must
be filled with solicitude for the spiritual well-being of
those who are intrusted to his charge, and by every
means in his power strive to advance them in the
love of virtue and of God.

His Duties. — His chief duty is to discover the
motive which has brought the novice from the world
to the cloister ; to find out his aim and his spirit.
The only attraction which the cloister has to offer
is God. He who seeks in it anything else will find
naught but disappointment, unhappiness, and a yoke
of lead. Hence St. Benedict says that the novice-
master " must narrowly and carefully watch over the
disciple who comes to him for instruction, in order to
discover whether he truly seeks God." To aid him in
finding out this, he gives him three marks, which
never fail to manifest themselves in the conduct of
those who are called by the Spirit of God to religious
life. Any novice who has these need not be troubled
with anxious doubts about the genuineness of his
calling ; and no Superior need hesitate for a single
moment about admitting to his community any one
upon whom God has set these three seals. The first

Reception to Religio7i. 303

of these is " eagerness for the work of God/' By the
'' work of God," St. Benedict primarily means the
Divine Office. Therefore, if any one truly seek God,
his aim will be seen by the promptitude with which
he casts off all sluggishness and rises from his bed to
be in good time for the performance of this all-impor-
tant duty. During the course of it he will guard himself
from distractions, he will observe all the ceremonies,
he will not spare himself the labour which it entails,
and he will do his utmost by previous study of the
Psalms to enter into the spirit of these inspired canti-
cles. There is, however, a far wider meaning attached
to the word " work of God " than is that of the Divine
Office. It may be taken to signify anything which
in any way whatever has to do with the service of
God. In this sense the novice's eagerness must show
itself in the exactitude with which he applies himself
to monastic studies, to holy reading, to prayer, to the
observance of Rule, to fraternal charity, and to the
fulfilment of those manifold duties by which men are
formed to the spiritual life. The second seal impressed
upon the character of those whom God has called to
religious life is promptitude or eagerness for obedi-
ence. For they grasp the idea that this virtue consti-
tutes the very essence of such a life. Obedience is
its scope ; therefore, to the exercise of it Religious
direct all their energies. Hence no Superior ought
to admit to profession any novice whom he perceives
to be careless in the execution of works of obedience.
But if he sees that there is in him a delicacy of con-
science about carrying into effect even the slightest
rule, that he is not daunted by acts which require the

304 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

setting aside of his will, which cost him many a pang^
which crucify his fondest wishes, he may be quite at
ease as to his vocation. The finger of God is there ;
he is one of God's chosen vessels, destined to occupy
a place of honour in the kingdom of Jesus Christ ;
for he is a lover of that lowly virtue which our
Redeemer practised in so heroic a degree as to become
obedient unto death, and even unto the death of the
Cross.

The third seal is an eagerness for humiliation.
The spirit of a true Religious is always in the bosom
of him who is lowly of heart, who thinks little of him-
self, and is willing that others also should have a poor
opinion of him. Any one so disposed does not shrink
from humiliation. He meets it with an undaunted
heart. When he is reviled, he holds his peace ; when
he is derided, he accepts it as his due ; when he is
employed only in mean offices, he is filled with joy.
His body is ready to endure rough usage, his mind to
be filled with reproaches. He becomes as a beast of
burden for God's sake. By these three marks or
seals the novice-master is to judge of the fitness for
the religious state of those who are put under his
charge. If they show themselves to be sluggish for
the " work of God," unwilling to obey, and cowards
in meeting and in bearing humiliation, it were best
that he should bid them depart. The monastic life
will not suit them.

But when he perceives in his subjects the marks
by which St. Benedict says that a true vocation is
discernible, he must even so plainly point out to them
all the rigour and the austerity which are insepar*

Reception to Religion. 305

able from a religious life. He must not let them
suppose that the life which they are aspiring to lead
is an easy one or a poetical one ; it is not anything
of the kind. It is hard and prosy. When the novelty
has worn off, only a solid faith, the fear of hell, and
the love of God can sustain the weary soul in its
warfare, and successfully carry it to the end. It is
his duty to impress this upon them. Nothing is left
undone to make this clear to them. Thrice during
the course of the year the whole Rule is read to them.
It is generally supposed that this was done in former
times probably because there was ordinarily but one
copy in each monastery, and also, perhaps, in order
that there might be witnesses present to testify that
this had been done, and consequently that there was
nothing hidden from the novice. In our congregation
the ceremony which follows this is carried out at the
end of ^v^ty third month. The novice comes before
the brethren assembled in the chapter-house, and
prostrating himself upon the ground, is told by the
Superior to rise. Then rising, but remaining in a
kneeling posture, he is asked by him what that is for
which he comes to ask. He replies that it is for leave
to persevere. Then the difficulties of the state are
explained to him, and he is at liberty to withdraw, or
to go on with the course of spiritual training to which
he is subjected. This training is at once theoretical
and practical. He is made to study a sound course
of ascetical theology, and he is exercised in all the
virtues which that science puts before him. He is
made to perform all the lowly offices of the monas-
tery. His patience is tried, his humility is tried, his

X

3c6 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

will is tried. If he shows by his behaviour during
this period of probation that the Spirit of God is in
him, and that in religion he is seeking only God, then
he is at last admitted to make his religious profession.
The Ceremony of Profession. — All the essen-
tial points of this solemn act, which are indicated in
the pages of the Rule, are embodied in all the cere-
monies of profession. These ceremonies, however,
differ very much in the different branches of the
Order. But as one will give a general idea of all, we
will describe that which is at present in use in the
English Benedictine Congregation. When the novice
has been admitted to profession by the council of the
monastery, he enters upon a spiritual retreat of eight
days, preparatory to the serious and all-important step
which he is about to take. On the eve of the day
upon which he is to make his vows, the whole com-
munity assemble in the chapter-house after Vespers.
On one side there is placed in full view of all, a secular
dress, and on the other the cowl, the emblem of
religious life. When all are seated, the novice enters,
and, coming into the midst of the brethren, prostrates.
When told to rise, he obeys, but remains kneeling.
For the last time the Superior explains to him all the
difficulties of the life which he is about to choose, and
then says to him : " My dearest brother, you have
now oftentimes read through the Rule under which
you desire to serve, and also the constitutions of our
congregation ; moreover, you have, for a whole year,
had a practical experience of how hard and difficult a
task it is to observe them. If you can do so, enter ;
if you cannot, then with all freedom depart." In

Reception to Religion, 307

answer to this, and to the permission once again to^
assume the secular dress and return to the world,,
the novice makes answer : " I have taken these and
many other similar difficulties into consideration, and
notwithstanding them all, I desire, with the help of
heavenly grace, to live and to die in the habit of our
most Holy Father St. Benedict." After this the
Superior announces that the novice will be admitted
to make his profession during the High Mass upon
the following day. The novice then rises, and kneel-
ing before the Superior, kisses his hand and returns to-
his place.

On the following morning, another ceremony takes-
place during Prime. The novice leaves the choir
before the verse " Pretiosa," and having taken off
his cowl, awaits, in company with his master or with
the master of ceremonies, until this fifty-seventh chap-
ter has been read. On these occasions it follows
immediately after the Capitulum. He then enters
the choir or the chapter-house, as the case may be^,.
and having prostrated, is told to rise. He does so,,
but remains kneeling, and the Superior says to him :.
" What seekest thou, dearest brother ?" He answers :
^' The blessing of my habit." The Superior replies :
** It is granted." Then the novice comes, and kneel-
ing before each of the brothers, is raised by him and
receives from him the kiss of peace. After Prime he
approaches Holy Communion, and awaits in silent
retreat for the joyful moment in which he may offer
up to God the holocaust of his liberty. This takes
place immediately after the Offertory of the Mass.
Standing in the middle of the choir, having on his

308 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

right hand the novice-master, and on his left one of
the cantors, he sings in a high and clear tone of voice
the formula of his profession, which he has previously
written with his own hand. In this formula he promises
in the presence of God, of His Saints, and of the per-
sons there present, *' Stability, conversion of manners,
and obedience, according to the Rule of our most
Holy Father St. Benedict." At the end of this for-
mula he kneels till the priest who is celebrating the
Mass has sung an appropriate prayer. Then rising,
he chants the verse, " Suscipe me Domine," which is
repeated by the choir. While the choir is singing
these beautiful words, he advances several paces
nearer to the altar, and taking a higher note, repeats
the " Suscipe." This is again taken up by the choir,
during which the novice advances to the sanctuary,
and for the third time sings the " Suscipe " in a yet
higher key. The " Gloria Patri " is this time added
to the verse, and at the end of it the novice goes to the
Epistle side of the altar to read the missionary oath,
which is peculiar to our congregation. Then laying
on the altar the paper upon which the form of his
vows is written, he makes a cross with his pen before
the place where his name is to stand, and puts his
signature to the deed of his profession. This is signed
by the priest who receives his vows and by two other
witnesses. The document is then folded up and
placed in the hands of the novice, who in the mean
time has returned to the middle of the sanctuary. As
soon as he receives it, he ascends the steps of the altar
and lays it upon the outspread corporal, upon which
the Body of the Lord is so soon to be consecrated.

Reception to Religion. 309

After this he goes to the middle of the choir, in which
a pall has been spread, and after covering his head
with his hood, prostrates upon it while the Litany of
the Saints is sung. At the end of this some beautiful
and appropriate prayers are chanted by the priest.
After these, the newly professed is conducted to the
altar-steps, on which he kneels during the blessing of
his habit. As- soon as this has been done, the priest
kneels and intones the Veni Creator, At the end of
the first verse he seats himself; and having divested
the newly-professed brother of his hood and scapular,
proceeds to clothe him in the blessed habit. Some
other prayers are then chanted by the priest, at the
end of which the kiss of peace is given. Finally, the
new brother kneels before the celebrant, who, drawing
the hood over his head, fastens it with a pin. The
hood is thus worn for the space of three days. On the
third day the pin is removed and the hood thrown
back, previously to the reception of Holy Communion.
After the Mass the newly-professed brother is con-
ducted to the Prior, who introduces him to the commu-
nity, and '^ from that hour he is under the law of the
Rule, and can neither leave the monastery nor shake
off the yoke of the Rule, which after so long a deliber-
ation he might have either accepted or refused

The Vows. — The three vows which are essential
to the religious state are poverty, chastity, and obe-
dience. It is almost needless to say that without
these there is not, and there cannot be, a Religious
Order in the theological sense of the term. But besides
these three vows, there are annexed to certain branches
and congregations others which are peculiar to them,

3IO The Teaching of St. Benedict.

and which serve to distinguish them from one another.
Thus the Carthusians make a vow of perpetual abstin-
ence from flesh-meat ; the Jesuits, of obedience to the
Pope with respect to missions ; and the Benedictines
of " stability and of conversion of manners." As we
have already spoken at sufficient length of the three
substantial or essential vows, we will here say a few
words on these two, w^hich, after all, are, in a certain
sense, implied in the vow of obedience, as are also the
\^ows of poverty and of chastity. By the vow of sta-
bility or steadfastness Benedictines are bound never
of their own will and without leave of Superiors to
abandon their Order or the monastery of their pro-
fession, unless, indeed, it is to pass with the free
consent and the permission of these same Superiors
into an Order or a monastery of more rigid observance.
Our Holy Father introduced this vow into the form
of profession to prevent his children from treading in
the footsteps of the Gyrovagi, who, as we have already
said, were a species of monastic " tramps." It was his
will that they should perseveringly serve God to the
end of their days in the monastery in which they had
made their profession, unless either necessity or the
command of Superiors should otherwise ordain. In
fact, he was so solicitous to guard them against the
innumerable evils which had already resulted from
the absence of some such regulation, and which were
likely still to flow from it, that he is not content
once only to inculcate the necessity for stability, but
in several parts of the Rule puts it before them as one
of the essential duties of their state. Thus at the end
of the Prologue he says that " we are never. to depart

Reception to Religion. 3 1 1

from the school of obedience, but to persevere in the
monastery even until death." When treating of humi-
lity, he says in the fourth degree that "whenever
hard, contrary, and injurious orders are imposed upon
us, we are to accept them with a quiet mind, and not
to grow weary of enduring them, nor on their account
to depart either from the monastery or from the Order,
but to persevere, inasmuch as only those who do so
will be saved." In the fourth chapter he exhorts us to
make use of the " instruments " of perfection, not for
a time only, but incessantly to the end ; to remain in
the " workshop " or cloister of the monastery, and to
persevere in the congregation. All this clearly proves
to us the deep insight which he had into the weak-
ness and the instability of the human heart, and the
accurate knowledge which he possessed of the temp-
tations which usually come to shake the fixed
resolve of religiously-minded men. There are times
when they grow uneasy, restless, and anxious. They
imagine that if they could but be translated to
such a monastery or to such an Order they would
be able more quietly to serve God ; they would have
a wider sphere for the exercise of their talents ; they
would meet with men of more cultivated minds.
Moreover, they would be rid of this particular Supe-
rior, whose government does not meet with their
approval, and so escape from this particular monas-
tery, of which the situation and the rules are not all
that might be desired. These and a thousand other
reasons suggest themselves to a man who once allows
his mind to be unhinged, or to waver in its purpose.
Let him look well to himself, or he will probably sin

312 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

against his vow of stability, by giving his assent to
these disturbing thoughts, even though he may not
ever attempt to carry them into effect. An excellent
means to scatter them to the winds is to remember
that the centre of our uneasiness and of our instability
is not in the circumstances with which we are sur-
rounded, but in ourselves. Therefore, if we do suc-
ceed in persuading Superiors to effect the change
which we imagine will rid us of all our discontent,
and they remove us to the place for which we were
sighing, we still carry with us the thorn which pro-
duced our unrest and our instability. -We shall be as
discontented, as fidgety, as ill at ease in our new
place of abode, and under our new Superiors, as we
were in that from which we fled, and among those
whom we fancied to be the only bars which held us
back from the promised land, flowing with milk and
honey. When thoughts of instability thus come to
ruffle the calm of our monastic life, let us look at our
crucifix, and think of the steadfast purpose of Him
Who hangs thereon. He remained kneeling in the
garden of Gethsemani, though His whole nature
shrank with shuddering horror from the sea of suffer-
ing which was surging in upon Him, and was so soon
to flood His soul with bitterness unutterable. He did
not come down from the Cross, though He might
so easily have done so, but remained there fastened
by the cruel nails, till the stream of His life-blood
had ebbed quite away. He was steadfast to the end„
and clung to the wood of the Cross.

Besides the vow of stability, the Benedictine Monk
makes a vow of " amendment of manners " — conversio

Reception to Religion. 3 1 3

morum. This conversion, to be worth anything at
all, must be internal as well as external. First of all>
the soul must be rid of the guilt of mortal sin, and
of affection to mortal sin. Therefore the aim of
the Religious must be directed to keep himself free
from stain. In the next place, he must strive to
regulate his outward man in such a way as to exhibit
in his person that gravity and that decorum which
all look for in one who wears the religious habit. His
eyes must not be suffered to look hither and thither,,
as a man of the world may allow his eyes to wander ;
his hands must not be allowed that liberty which is
pardonable in seculars ; his gait must be modest and
subdued ; his whole carriage expressive of the humil-
ityand the holiness of one whose chief aim is to serve
and to please God. In other words, he binds him-
self by vow to endeavour, during the whole course of
his life, to put off the old man, and to clothe himself
with the new man. This is not done in one act nor
in one day. It is a lifelong work : a daily and an
hourly struggle. It is that constant tending towards
perfection to which all Religious are bound, even
though it is not mentioned in their formula of profes-
sion, as it is in ours. Happy the Religious who, \yy
earnestness, by fervour in prayer, by attention to the
inspiration of the Holy Spirit, and by the aid of
divine grace, is able to say, " I live : now not I, but
Christ liveth in me ;" for then in very truth he has
accomplished that conversion or amendment of man-
ners which he came into religion to carry into effect.

Legislation of the Church concerning
Vows. — Previously to the year 1848 it was customary

o

14 The Teaching of St. Benedict,

for novices to make their solemn profession at the
end of their year of probation. But the late Pope
Pius IX., for many good and urgent reasons, ordained
that after the year of novitiate all religious men
should take the three simple but perpetual vows, and
spend three years under their obligation, before they
could be admitted to solemn profession. This decree,
which at first affected only Italy, was in the year 1858
e^xtended to the whole world. At the end of these
three years passed in simple vows, Superiors are
empowered to admit their subjects to solemn profes-
sion ; but if they have solid reasons for deferring it for
some time longer, they have the power to do so, but
only till the subject has completed his twenty-fifth
year. After that date he can claim profession as a
right, and then Superiors are bound either to accede
to his request or to dismiss him. The earliest age at
which any one can be admitted to simple vows is
when he has completed his sixteenth year. The
power to dispense from these simple vows is reserved
to the Pope ; but if the General of the Order shall
deem it fitting to dismiss any one, the person so dis-
missed is free from all the obligations which he con-
tracted by the vows, and recourse need not be had to
the Holy See for a dispensation. This power of dis-
missal lies in the hands of the General and of his
council, and they have authority to delegate their
power, and to commission certain good and prudent
Religious — who should be at least three in number —
to act in their name. No process, however, or judicial
power is needed to execute the determination of the
Superiors ; it may be carried into effect when the

Reception to Religion. 3 1 5

truth of the facts for which they deem dismissal
necessary has been made clear to them. While a
Religious is in simple vows he cannot be promoted
to holy orders, but only to the first tonsure and to
minor orders. Moreover, although possessing radical
dominion over his property, he cannot administer, nor
make use of, nor spend anything, without special
leave from his Superior. Therefore, before contract-
ing the obligation of the simple vows, he must trans-
fer the administration of his property either to some
trustee or to his Order, until he shall make a final and
complete renunciation of all his worldly goods at his
solemn profession. This profession must be an
express one, and no merely tacit contract will suffice.
While in simple vows he enjoys all the spiritual privi-
leges of those who are solemnly professed. Never-
theless, when absent from choir he is not bound to
recite the Divine Office, and when present is obliged
only by the Rule of the monastery in which he
happens to be, which Rule does not claim his obedi-
ence under the penalty of grievous sin. If he should
happen to be more than twenty-five years of age
when he makes his simple vows, he cannot on that
account be admitted any earlier to solemn profession,
but must remain three whole years under their obliga-
tion before he is solemnly professed. This profession
need not necessarily take place in the house of novi-
tiate, but may be made in any monastery of his con-
gregation in which the Religious happens to be when
the period of his probation has expired.^

^ Principles of Religious Life^ chap, xxviii. sec. i.

3 1 6 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

CHAPTER LVIII.

ADMISSION OF CHILDREN.

Age of Admission. — From the Life of St. Bene-
dict, written by St. Gregory the Great, we see that
it was customary from the very foundation of the
Order to admit children to the monastery to be
trained for the monastic Hfe. The earHest age at
which they were allowed to be received was probably
three years, though there is some reason to believe
that there were instances in which they were accepted
by the Monks at an even earlier age than this. In
some monasteries boys were admitted at the age of
five years, but the general rule seems to have been to
receive them from the age of seven to twelve years.
After the age of fourteen, parents were not allowed
to offer their children to the monasteries in the way
indicated in this chapter. This was forbidden either
by the ninth or the tenth Council of Toledo.

Ceremony of Offering. — The manner in which
parents dedicated their children to the monastic life
is thus described by Hildemar and by various other
writers. When the Gospel had been read at the Mass,
and just before the Offertory was about to begin, the
father of the child — or if the father was dead, the
mother — led him to the altar. Holding the child
before him, and putting into his right hand a paten,
upon which was a host, and into his left a cruet, in
which there was some wine, he raised that part of the
cloth which hangs in front of the altar, and with it

I

Admission of Children. 3 1 7

covered the hands of the boy. Then he produced the
written petition, and from it read the formula : " Before
God and His Saints I promise for my son, stability,
amendment of manners, and obedience." While this
was doing, the witnesses brought for the purpose were
standing by. As soon as the father had made his
offering, the Abbot said to him, " What do you
desire, brother ?" The father replied, " I wish to give
my son to Almighty God, to serve Him in this mon-
astery, because in the Law the Lord hath commanded
the children of Israel to offer their sons to God."
Whereupon the Abbot, turning to the witnesses, said
to them, " Do you see what this man is doing ; do
you hear what he is saying ?" They replied, " We
have both heard and seen." The father then con-
ducted his son to the place where the offering was to
be made, and the celebrant took the bread and the
wine from the child's hands. The petition or docu-
ment was then given to the Abbot, who kept it in
the archives of the monastery with the vows of the
Monks.

Perpetuity of the Obligation.— It is evident
from the words of this chapter, from the decrees of
Councils, and from many examples of which we read
in monastic histories, that the children who were thus
dedicated to the service of God by their parents were
bound to adhere to the method of life chosen for
them, just as were the Monks, who in their mature
age had made this choice for themselves.^ The parents

^ The formula, '* Monachum, aut professio, aut parentum
ckvotio facit," which is found in the Papal decrees, and upon
which this opinion rests for its authority, is gravely questioned

3i8 The Teaching of St, Benedict,

made for their child precisely the same formula of
profession which the Monks made for themselves :
" Let the parents make for him the aforesaid promise."
They took an oath neither to leave him any property
nor to suffer any one else to make him his heir. They
were so to arrange their affairs that the child should
have no hope of ever again acquiring a right to any
earthly possessions. The fourth Council of Toledo in
its forty-ninth and fifty-fifth canons, the Council of
Worms in its twenty-second canon, and the Council of
Triberg in its sixth canon, all recognise the promise
made by a father dedicating his child to God as bind-
ing upon the child. A case in point, which proves
the binding force of this promise, is that of St. Ber-
nard's nephew Robert, who left the Cistercians to join
the Monks of Clugny. One of the reasons which he
gave to justify himself for taking this step was that
he had been offered by his parents to that monastery.
His illustrious uncle, however, claimed his obedience
on the ground that, although his parents had promised
him to Clugny, they had not given him, nor made for
him the profession prescribed by the Rule, nor wrapped
his hands in the altar-cloth, and thus, in the presence
of witnesses, delivered him to the care of the Abbot.
From this we may conclude that if these ceremonies

by many theologians. ' They dispute the meaning which is
attributed to it, as well as the correctness of the decisions of
such provincial Councils as are quoted in the text. I myself
incline to the opinion of those who maintain that, ex ^'^re
naturali, there could not be any valid obligation binding the
conscience of the child, in consequence of the religious profes-
sion made for him by his parents.

Admission of Children. 3 1 9

had been carried out, the monastery of Clugny might
have claimed him as one of its children. Hence we
see from this example that the promise made by the
parents was in those days considered to be binding
upon the conscience of the child. This custom of
dedicating children to the monastic life flourished
until the twelfth century, in which it began 'to fall
into desuetude. The legislation of the Church since
that date has declared that any profession made either
without a previous year of probation, or before the
candidate has completed his sixteenth year, is null
and void.

System of Education.— The children who were
thus admitted to the monastery were educated with
the utmost care. They were taught to read, to write,
and to sing. As they advanced in years they studied
the Ploly Scripture and the w^orks of the Fathers.
They were employed in the choir to assist the Monks
in the ecclesiastical chant ; they learnt the art of
illuminating and of copying manuscripts ; and if their
ability showed itself apt for the exercise of any manual
craft, they learnt that also from some of those who
were skilled in it. During their boyhood they did not
observe the monastic fasts, but it was nevertheless
usual in some congregations to accustom them to absti-
nence from flesh-meat as soon as they had attained
their seventh year. A paternal vigilance was exer-
cised over them, which kept them from mischief and
from any occasions which might lead them to the
knowledge of evil. In the lapse of ages this spirit
of fatherly watchfulness seems to have degenerated
into a species of police surveillance, to which in these

320 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

days there is nothing similar, except perhaps that
which is exercised over criminals under sentence of
death. It would, of course, be unfair and illogical to
judge the men of those ages by the same standard by
which we judge of our contemporaries. It may have
been their fate to have had to deal with a youthful
generation very different, perhaps, from that with which
we are now brought in contact ; they may have had
difficulties to contend with of which we can form but
a very inadequate idea ; their lot was probably cast
among men whose views and aims and circumstances
were almost totally different from those with which
we are familiar at the present day. Consequently
their conduct, and their policy, and their system of
education were shaped to meet the exigencies of the
times in which they lived, and of the characters with
which they were brought in contact. On this ground
their system of surveillance may be defended. But
any one who will take the trouble to read those parts
of Lanfranc's Constitutions which treat of this subject
will see that anything more unsuited to our own times,
or opposed to our national ideas, could not well be
conceived. If any school of boys were watched over
in these days with that painful degree of vigilance
which that great man deemed necessary for the boys
of the day in which he lived, it would become a very
pandemonium. A kind, liberal, fatherly watchfulness
is not resented by boys. It helps them to conquer
themselves. But a narrow-minded, suspicious, intoler-
able police surveillance drives them into the arms of
the devil.

Rights of Parents. — To our modern notions

Admission of Children, • 321

and ideas, it seems almost incredible that the Church
should ever have sanctioned the consecration of chil-
dren to a life so arduous as is that of religion, before
they are capable of understanding the gravity of the
obligation which it entails. But in judging of this,
as well as of many other matters, we shall fall into
lamentable errors unless we divest ourselves of the
ideas prevalent in this nineteenth century, and clothe
ourselves in those which were current in the age in
which this custom excited as little surprise as the
baptism of a* child does in our own days. What, then,
were the rights of parents with respect to their chil-
dren in those days, during which the Church is said
to have regarded the vow made . by a father or a
mother in the name of his or of her child in the
same light in which she looked upon those which were
solemnly promised to God by men of mature years ?
They were far more extensive than they are now ;
but extensive and far-reaching as they then were,
they were limited indeed if compared with the rights
which parents enjoyed in primitive times. In the
days of Moses the right of the father of the family
over his wives, his children, and his servants was abso-
lute. He could dispose of them and sell them, just as
a farmer in these days can dispose of and sell his
stock. Jephte held his daughter to the fulfilment of
the vow which he had made, and she did not resist ;
Abraham did not express the least surprise at the
order to immolate his only son ; the Hebrews, in
imitation of the wicked people around them, did not
hesitate to sacrifice their children to devils ; a cre-
ditor could seize and sell his debtor, together with

Y

3^2 • The Teaching of St. Benedict.

wife, children, and all that he possessed, in order to
indemnify himself. Among the Greeks and the
Romans, at a later date, this absolute power over
wife and family was in full force. On the advent of
Christianity this was gradually limited. The power
of life and of death was taken away, and the author-
ity of the father of the family was narrowed in many
other important particulars. But, till a comparatively
recent date, his power to make vows for his children
and to select for them the partner of their lives was
still undiminished. In our Holy Father's time this
power was acknowledged and freely used by every
parent with respect to his children, and therefore it
was that the Church is said to have regarded the vow
by which a father dedicated his child to religious life
as binding upon that child's conscience. If we bear
these things in mind, we shall cease to wonder how
the Church ever could — if, indeed, she ever did —
sanction that which to us seems to be a monstrous
tyranny over the individual liberty of man.

CHAPTER LIX

ADMISSION OF PRIESTS.

Reception of Priests. — It is evident from this,
and from several other passages in the Rule, that
there were but few priests in our Order in the days of
its infancy. Often enough there was probably only
one, and in all likelihood that one was the Abbot

A dmission of Priests. 323

himself. Hence our Holy Father says that if any
priest wishes to be received into the monastery, for
the purpose of leading a monastic life, he is to be put
next to the Abbot. This rank was given to him out
of respect for his priesthood. Another circumstance
which indicates the fewness of priests in St. Benedict's
monasteries is the fact that there was probably
Mass only on Sundays and on festivals. For we see
from the thirty-eighth chapter that those who worked
in the kitchen were ordered to abstain on these days
from* the extra pittance which was allowed them,
until after Mass and Holy Communion. Moreover,
we can see that in the distribution of time there is
no provision made for a daily Mass. The present
chapter, however, proves that men of the sacerdotal
order began to turn their eyes and their hearts
towards these new foundations even in the first years
of their existence. Attracted by the edifying lives
and the holy simplicity of those who had gathered
round St. Benedict, they began to sigh for the peace,
the repose, and the many advantages presented by
the monastic state for winning perfection, and gradu-
ally turned their backs upon the world and sought
refuge in the cloister.

Their Treatment.— It is worthy of remark that
our Holy Father, when speaking of the reception of
priests, uses a form of expression different from that
which he employs when speaking of laymen who
wish to enter the religious state. Of these lat-
ter he says, " when they come to conversion {noviter
veniens ad conversionem) ;" but of the former he says,
'' if they wish to be received!' The reason is that he

324 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

looks upon the priest as already converted or turned
from a worldly life to a life devoted to the service of
God, whereas the layman, ordinarily speaking, is
occupied chiefly with the pursuit and the service of
worldly things. Yet, notwithstanding his respect for
the priest, he does not in any way soften for him the
treatment which he prescribes for the reception of
those who wish to make profession of the monastic
life. The priest, on his arrival, was detained four or
five days at the gate of the monastery, and was
admitted only after patiently enduring the rebuffs
which were offered to him and the difficulty which
was made in acceding to his request. He was in-
formed that, out of regard for his priestly order, no
relaxation whatever would be made in his favour in
any point of discipline. With respect to that he was
on the same footing as the ordinary layman. He
was told to keep that question of our Divine Lord's
ever ringing in his ears : " Friend, for what art thou
come ? Is it to lead an easy life ? Is it to escape
the worry of the world ? Is it to study, and thereby
to advance thyself ? Then thou art come as a traitor,
to give the deceitful kiss which betrays thy Master
into the hands of His enemies. But if thou be come
to do the work of God, to be obedient, to suffer re«
proach for His name's sake, thou wilt welcome with
joy all the hard and rough usage by which men go
unto God."

Their Privileges. — Although no relaxation
whatever was made in favour of priests, yet out of re-
spect for their sacred Orders a certain consideration
was shown to them. If there were no other priests

A dmission of Priests. 325

in the monastery, they were allowed to stand next
in order after the Abbot. In the church they were
permitted to give the blessing before the lessons, and
in the refectory to bless the table. Also they were
allowed to celebrate the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass.
But unless they received the Abbot's order to exer-
cise these various functions, they were not to presume
to do them. Among the Cassinese, priests who
entered the novitiate were for some months forbidden
to say Mass, both to test their patience and their
humility, and to allow them time thoroughly to study
and to learn all the minute ceremonies of that most
sacred action. In our congregation, if a priest enters
the novitiate, he is first only among the novices.
When he makes his profession, he stands before all
those who are not priests ; but among the priests he
ranks last. However, as those who are older in the
holy habit than he is are advanced to the priesthood,
they take their rank before him, till at last he obtains
that place which belongs to him by right, as being
that which is his due, in consequence of the date of
his entrance into the Order.

Reception of Clerics. — Besides priests and
bishops — for many bishops also threw in their lot with
the Monks — a goodly number of clerics knocked
for admittance at the gates of the monastery. By
•" clerics " we must understand all those who are
deacons, or subdeacons, or in minor Orders. . All
these were subjected to the same discipline as was
that unto which lay candidates had to submit. An
easy entrance was not accorded to them. They had
to persevere knocking, to be for a few days in the

326 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

guest-house, thence to be transferred to the novitiate,
and there to be tried in all patience, that those unto
whom they came might have time and opportunity
for testing by what spirit they were led to seek for
admission. Out of respect, however, for the Orders
which they had received, they were accorded a rank
somewhat higher than was that to which they were
entitled by the date of their coming. No doubt due
regard was had to their age, to their learning, and to
the post which they had held in the world. Thus it
is likely that a subdeacon would not be raised to a
position above some venerable Monk^ who, though
not in Orders, had yet grown gray in religious life.
One of St. Benedict's principles was to give to each
his meed of honour and of respect.

CHAPTER LX.

HOW MONKS WHO ARE STRANGERS ARE TO BE

RECEIVED.

Monks who are Strangers. — It must be borne
in mind that in the days of St. Benedict, although men
dedicated themselves till death to the monastic life,
they did not irrevocably bind themselves to live in any
particular monastery. Hence it was not at all either
an unusual or a singular thing to meet with Monks
who had left the monastery of their profession, and
who travelled about in search of a more thorough in-
sight into the asceticism by which they endeavoured

Reception of Monks who are Strangers. 327

to tend unto perfection. It is easy to see the grave
and almost innumerable abuses unto which this would
open wide the door. Men unstable of mind, weak
of will, desirous of novelty, and weary .of restraint^
invariably used it as a pretext to loose the bonds
which tied them to any Superior who strove to keep
them to the observance of Rule. These were to
be met with on the public highways, and in the
guest-houses of the monasteries, wearing the mon-
astic dress, but disgracing it often enough by their
dissolute lives. In the excessive charity of his heart
our Holy Father gave hospitality both to the good
and to the bad ; but his treatment of the two classes
differed very much, and showed his esteem for true
Religious, and his anxiety to be rid of those who were
Religious only in name.

How THEY ARE TO BE TREATED. — The wander-
ing Monk, whose aim in life seems to have been to
escape from all the rigours of the state which he had
vowed to God, to enjoy its privileges, and at the same
time to taste the pleasures of the world, very soon
betrayed his true character when once he was within
the enclosure of the monastery. He did not join the
brethren in their Matin Office, he was not seen at their
daily toil ; he found fault with his food, with his bed^
with the attendants. A very short time sufficed to
show that he was intent on good cheer, upon bodily
ease, upon change of scene, and upon excitement.
St. Benedict bids us politely and charitably intimate
to such as these that they must depart, and that too
without any delay, in order. that scandal be not given
to the brethren.

328 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

But whenever a true Monk came to his monas-
teries, and by his behaviour showed that he really was
in search of God, he was not only never told to depart,
but if he asked to be received, w*as welcomed with joy;
and even if he did not present any such petition, was
earnestly pressed to remain. Men of this stamp are
easily discernible. They are quiet, unobtrusive, con-
tented. The food is good enough for them ; the air
of the country is not a subject of solicitude ; the
customs please them; they are eager for the " work
of God," for labour, and for obedience. To put an
end to all wandering, St. Benedict invited these to
make that vow, which he had just introduced, of
remaining in the same monastery, bearing the yoke
of Christ, even until death. If they acceded to his
request, they were received among the brethren and
persevered in obedience. Thus by degrees, as the
Order spread, the wandering Monk began to be a
rarity, till at last the species became quite extinct.

Admonitions given by Strangers. — The
eyes of strangers are sharp and keen in detecting any-
thing which is amiss, particularly in point of disci-
pline, in any of the monasteries which they chance to
visit. The brethren themselves, through daily use,
may be quite blind to some defect which a stranger
perceives at a glance. St. Benedict, knowing this, is
careful to warn all Superiors to pay attention to that
which is said by their guests or their visitors. For it
may be that God makes use of them as His messen-
gers to point out that which calls loudly for reform,
and yet is not attended to. There are some persons,
however, who cavil, and criticise, and even find fault.

Reception of Monks who are Strangers. 329

not through any zeal for the amendment of that which
to them seems to be amiss, but purely and simply
through a certain characteristic perversity, which finds
pleasure in inflicting either pain or humiliation. Those
things at which these persons carp are often good and
useful practices, worthy of commendation rather than
of blame. Therefore it is that St. Benedict bids Supe-
riors use \h€\x prudence in noticing the faults which
are pointed out to them, and see whether the person
who makes any suggestion to them does this with
reason and with humility. By these two qualities he
will be able to detect whether the person has been
sent to him by God for this very purpose, or is simply
by nature a fault-finder, and therefore unworthy of
notice.

Reception of Monks who are Strangers. —
As the Monks who came to the monasteries in the
days of which we are speaking had already been tried
in the novitiate, and had made their three monastic
vows, they were not a second time subjected to the
probation to which novices are obliged to submit.
All that was required of them was that they should
make the vow of stability, and then they were at once
admitted to be members of the brotherhood. The
reason of this was that, in consequence of the time
which they had spent in the monastery as guests,
their character and their manner of life were known
to those who accepted them. It is very probable that
some kind of ceremony was observed in their recep-
tion, but of what nature that ceremony was cannot
with accuracy be determined. In all likelihood the
Monk who wished to be received presented himself in

330 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

the chapter-house before the Abbot and the assem-
bled community, and made a formal request to be
admitted as a member of the brotherhood. When
the Abbot had signified his assent, the community
very probably went in procession from the chapter-
house to the church, and there, in the presence of all
the brethren and of two witnesses specially selected
for the purpose, the stranger read from a schedule,
written either by himself or by some of the Monks,
the formula of the vow by which he bound himself, in
the presence of God and of His Saints, to live and
die in the monastery. The words of this vow are
thus given by Hildemar :

" I (Brother Bernard), coming to this monastery
from a far-distant province, by this document, written
with my own hand, confirm my stability for ever in
this monastery, because the manner of life pursued
by its inmates has pleased me, and my manner of
life has found favour with them." Having read this,
he ascended the steps of the altar, and laid it upon
the corporal, whence it was taken by the Abbot and
laid up in the archives of the monastery. No other
ceremony was needed : from that hour the Monk was
counted as one of the brethren, and was never suffered
to leave the precincts of his new home except with
the Abbot's permission, and for the execution of some
necessary business.

Dismissal of Monks who are Strangers. —
Although St. Benedict allowed those Monks whose
lives were edifying to abide in his monasteries for as
long a time as it might please them to remain, yet
he was not so indulgent with those who murmured

Reception of Monks who are Strangers. 33 1

against discipline, and, by the extravagance of their
demands, brought trouble into the house of God.
These, with all civility, he told to depart. In the
" Regula Magistri " it was prescribed that, at the end
of two days, the Abbot and the cellarer after Prime
should conduct these Monks into the oratory, and
should say to them : " Help our brothers in the work
which is imposed upon them. If you do not wish to
do so, depart, for the term of our hospitality does not
extend beyond the space of two days." If they were
willing to work, some task was given to them to
accomplish, in company with the brethren; but if they
refused to undergo this labour test, they were told to
depart, in order to make room for some other stranger
who needed hospitality. This was an excellent con-
trivance, which speedily rid the monastery of all the
hulking tramps who, under the guise of the religious
habit, and the pretext of seeking greater perfection
in monastic life, were accustomed to live at the expense
of the frugal and charitable cenobites. This and the
vow of stability were great means for putting an end
to the wanderings of Monks beyond their enclosure^
and for building them up in those virtues which
enable men to persevere through all difficulties, even
unto the end, in patiently bearing the yoke of obedi-
ence.

23^ The Teaching of St. Benedict.

CHAPTER LXI.

OF THE PRIESTS OF THE MONASTERY.

Qualifications for the Priesthood.— Our
Holy Father, in the fifty-ninth chapter, legislates for
those persons who may wish to join his Order when
they are already sealed with the priestly character.
In the present chapter he lays down rules of conduct
for those who are taken from the ranks of the brother-
hood, and raised to this lofty dignity. In one com-
prehensive word he gives the qualifications which
are requisite for one who is destined to exercise the
functions of a priest : " he must be worthy to fill the
office of the priesthood." The first of these qualifica-
tions which mark the Monk as worthy of the priest-
hood is his own complete indifference as to whether
he shall be raised to this dignity or not. He must not
ambition the priesthood ; he must not intrigue to
procure his promotion ; he must not importune nor
push his Superiors to advance him to it. He must
leave himself in their hands, and acquiesce in their
determination. This is evident from the fact that St.
Benedict says, " if the Abbot shall ask the Bishop."
The next qualification is holiness of life ; for the
priestly office is one which brings poor sinful man
in contact with the infinite sanctity of God. " There-
fore if he had the purity of an angel and the sanctity
of John the Baptist, he would not be worthy to receive
or to handle the Sacrament " ^ in which God lies con-

1 The Imitation^ Book iv. chap. v.

Of the Priests of the Monastery. 333

cealed. The third quaHfication is maturity of age.
In former times this was supposed to be thirty, or at
least twenty-five, years ; but in these modern times, the
Council of Trent fixed at twenty-five the age at which
clerics may receive the Order of priesthood For
the reception of it at an earlier age a dispensation is
required. The last qualification is a sufficient amount
of learning to enable the priest to discharge his sacred
functions to the edification of the faithful. As the
advancement of any Monk to an office and a dignity
of so great importance was a very serious matter, it
was doubtless one of those grave questions about
which the Abbot took counsel with his whole com-
munity. Each person in it gave his candid opinion
about the person whom the Abbot proposed, and
from their concurrent testimony he was enabled to
fix upon that one among his subjects who was most
suitable for the office.

, Virtues requisite in a Priest. — The functions
of the priestly office are so sacred, and the majesty
which it was instituted to serve is so sublime, that he
who is invested with it ought also to be clothed with
every virtue. St. Benedict, however, mentions only
three, which imply the- sum-total of all that per-
fection which it is possible to attain here below. The
priest must be humble. His office, indeed, is one of
great dignity, and much honour and influence are
generally given to those who exercise it. Conse-
quently a gate is opened in the heart of its possessor
for the entrance of pride. Therefore our Holy Father
says : " Let him who is ordained beware of haughti-
ness and of prided Besides being humble, the priest

334 ^^^ Teaching of St. Benedict.

must he obedient, "Let him not do anything," says
St. Benedict, " except that which is ordered by the
Abbot." He is Hfted up on high, and raised above
his brethren ; but he must not suffer himself to think
that he is thereby exempted from the duty of submis-
sion and of obedience, any more than the least of
those over whose heads his priestly dignity has set him.
*' Lo, thou hast been made a priest : . . . see that thou
show thyself to be blameless. Thou hast not light-
ened thy burden, but art now tied fast with a stricter
bond of discipline." ^ In addition to obedience and
humility, a priest must ever tend to rise higher and
higher in the scale of perfection. His life must be a
continual endeavour to advance. These are the words
in which St. Benedict puts this duty before him :
^^ Let him not by reason of his priesthood forget the
obedience and the discipline of the Rule, but rather
strive to advance more and more in the serviceof God."
The Priest's Rank in the Community. — In
the fifty-ninth chapter, when treating of priests who
wish to leave the secular life in order to embrace the
monastic life, St. Benedict ordains that they should
be put next in rank to the Abbot, and should be
allowed to give a blessing and to say Mass, if the
Abbot should order them to exercise their sacerdotal
functions. Those of the Monks, however, who were
raised to the priesthood from the bosom of the com-
munity were seemingly not favoured in this way.
Though far above their brethren by reason of the
priestly office, they did not with their Orders receive
a higher rank than was that which they had pre-
2 j^/f^ Imitation, Book iv. chap. v.

Of the Priests of the Monastery. 335

viously held. The only conditions upon which this
rule could be set aside were the petition of the bro-
therhood that this mark of dignity should be granted
to them, and the consent of the Abbot to the brother-
hood's request. Special holiness of life seems to have
been the motive cause which usually induced them to
advance the newly ordained priest to a higher rank
in the community than was his due by reason of his
age in holy religion. But even so, he was not released
from humble obedience to the orders of the Deans
and the provosts of the monastery. By these means,
our Holy Father, who was so hostile to the spirit of
pride, endeavoured to defend his children from the
snares of that insidious vice, by constantly exercising
them in the fundamental virtue of humility.

Punishment of Priests.— Whenever any Monk
who was also a priest was so puffed up with this
malignant spirit of pride as to refuse obedience to
his lawful Superiors, some commentators think that
no regard was paid to his dignity, but that the usual
course of punishment was applied for his correction.
Others think that, out of respect for his priesthood,
neither the penalty of scourging nor of excommunica-
tion was inflicted. Others, taking a middle course,
are of opinion that the Bishop of the diocese was
called in, and informed of his delinquencies, and of
the means already used for their correction. After
having heard the case against the priest, and found
that the accusations of his Superiors are true, he
deposed the priest from his dignity, and then the
Superiors proceeded against him as they would
against a simple Monk. In St. Benedict's day, and

n

36 TAe Teaching of St. Benedict.

for some years after it, all monasteries were subject to
the Bishop. The first instance of exemption is men«
tioned in the time of Gregory the Great. As the
Monk, by his ordination, became in a certain sense
the Bishop's subject, the Bishop naturally enough was
called in to act as judge of the offences which were
said to have been committed by that subject. If
after being deposed by the Bishop, and passing
through the various grades of penance, the culprit did
not amend, he was thrust out of the monastery, just
in the same way in which any other incorrigible per-
son would be expelled.

CHAPTER LXII

THE ORDER OF THE COMMUNITY.

Rule for determining Rank. — To enable every
one clearly to see his position in the Order, and to
prevent any unseemly contention for precedence, St
Benedict gives one broad general rule by which his
children are easily able to determine the rank which
they are to hold. That rank is given to them by the
date at which they enter the Order. But there are
three dates from which this fact is counted by various
people : first, the time when the postulant asks to be
admitted ; secondly, the day on which he is clothed
in the monastic habit or enters the novitiate ; thirdly,
the day when he makes his profession. Which of
these occasions is considered by our Holy Father to
be that eventful one which fixes for the Monk the

The Order of the Commimity. 2>?>1

rank which he is to hold in the monastery ? From
the words of this present chapter, it is evident that he
means this to be the moment when the future Monk
first comes to the monastery-gates and asks to be
admitted to the Order. " He who cometh at the
second hour of the day must know that he is lower in
the monastery than the man who came at the first
hour, no matter what his age or his dignity may be."
This, however, did not come in force in the case of
those children who, at an early age, were offered to
the monastery, until they had attained their fifteenth
year. When they had arrived at that age, they were
put into that rank which was due to them from the
date at which they entered upon religious life. In
some congregations, as in our own, a person's rank is,
as a general rule, determined by the date at which he
receives the habit. Thus, if there are several postu-
lants, one of whom has preceded the others in the
date at which he entered the monastery, but is pre-
vented by some unforeseen accident from being
" clothed " upon the same day on which the rest are
admitted, he loses the rank which he would otherwise
have held.

The rank thus acquired by age in the habit is that
in which the Monks proceed to perform the various
actions of monastic life. Thus, among those who are
not priests, it is the person who has been longest in
the congregation who approaches first to receive the
Most Holy Sacrament ; who precedes the others in
intoning a Psalm or an antiphon ; who receives the
kiss of peace at the altar ; and who, in all the other
rites in which some sort of order has to be observed,

z

22^ The Teaching of St. Benedict.

is entitled to hold a rank higher than is given to those
who have come after him to religion.

Merit of Life. — The first reason for which an
exception may be made to this general rule is merit
of life. By this we must understand superior virtue,
or great learning, or dignity of station. Thus when
there comes to join us any one who in the world, or
in another religious body to which he formerly
belonged, was held in high esteem, and who is noted
for the sanctity of his life and the wide range of his
acquirements. Superiors are empowered to accord to
him a rank above those who have, perhaps, been
many years in religion. In all probability, this will be
that rank which would have been his had he joined
the Order in his early youth.

The Abbot's Appointment. — This is the
second reason on account of which there may be
given to any one in our Order a rank higher than is
that to which he has a right by the date of his
entrance. If the Abbot chooses to promote any of
the brethren, he has the power to do so. But this
power must not be used in an arbitrary manner. He
must not make this change out of mere whim, or to
manifest his personal affection. There must be some
good solid reason for it, some just cause which moves
him to do it ; and therefore St. Benedict warns all
Superiors that they shall answer for their judgments
and their works before the dread tribunal of God.
The memory of this stirring thought he deems to be
amply sufficient to deter any Superior from disturb-
ing the peace of the flock committed to his care
by any act of injustice, or by any tyrannical use of

The Order of the Co7nmunity, 339

the almost absolute power which he holds in his
hands.

Order of our Congregation. — The general
law which determines our rank in the congregation,
is our age jn the religious habit. The exceptional
law which raises any of us to a position above that
which is due to him by reason of his age in religion
is office or dignity, or the appointment of some par-
ticular Superior, or the decree of general chapter. ( i )
The President-General everywhere takes the first
place. After him the rank is as follows : (2) Abbots ;
(3) ex-Presidents ; (4) the Definitors of the Regi-
men ; (5) Provincials, who in their own provinces
give place to no one, except to the President-General ;
(6) conventual Priors; (7) the President second-
elect — that is to say, the father who is chosen to
succeed the President, should this latter die during
his term of office; (8) the Definitors of England ; (9)
Masters in Theology and .Preachers-General ; (10)
the Procurator in the Roman Court; (11) the Pre-
sident's secretary; (12) the Procurators of the pro-
vinces; (13) the chaplains of the Benedictine Nuns.
All these, in their respective orders, hold that rank
which is due to them by their age in religion.

The order of the cathedral Priors is as follows :
Canterbury, Winchester, Durham. The conventual
Priors take precedence of one another according to
the date of the foundation of the particular monastery
over which each of them presides. In his own mon-
astery no one takes precedence of him except the
President-General. The Definitors of the Regimen
and the Definitors of England take precedence of one

340 T^he Teaching of St, Benedict.

another, not by their age in religion, but by the order
in which they are elected. After the chaplains of the
Benedictine Nuns come: (i) Sub-priors, but only in
their own monasteries; (2) priests who are pro-
fessed ; (3) professed Religious who are not yet
priests ; (4) choir novices ; (5) lay brothers.

A Prior can raise one of his subjects to a rank
higher than that which is due to him, provided that
his councillors, in their secret votes, are unanimous in
approving of the person whom he proposes to therri
for this honour. The rank which is thus given can-
not be taken away from the person upon whom it is
conferred, unless the councillors are unanimous in
voting that he shall be deposed from it. The rank
thus conferred upon any one by a conventual Prior
holds good only in the monastery over which that
Prior happens to rule. But if any rank in the Order
is conferred upon any of us by the general chapter,
that rank holds good everywhere and in everything,
except in those elections in which rank must be com-
puted from the date at which we received the holy
habit of religion.

Mutual Reverence. — In order to promote that
love and that reverence which religious men ought to
entertain for one another, our Holy Father bids the
juniors honour their seniors, and the seniors manifest
their paternal love towards those in the community
who are their juniors. For this end, he lays down
two or three simple rules, which each of us ought to
be most careful to observe, because they are the
express commands of our great lawgiver. Besides
this, they will serve to keep alive within us the fact

The Order of the Community. 341

that we are brothers, and, therefore, that we should
gladly bear one another's burdens, and thus endeavour
to fulfil the law of Christ. The first of these rules is
that one Monk must never address another by his
svc^i'^Xo. ri'd.'iXi^ {j)uro nomine^. Hence it is against the
spirit of the Rule to call any member of the Order
purely and simply by his religious name, as, for
instance, when addressing him, to say " Placid," or
" Gregory," or " Oswald." It is worse still to omit his
religious name, and to address him as "Smith,"
"Jones," '' Thomas." It is worst of all to address
him by any term which designates nothing else than
his nationality.

The second rule is that the seniors should always
prefix to the religious name of their juniors the word
" brother." Thus when a senior or a priest addresses
a junior, he should say " Brother Placid," or " Brother
Basil," or " Brother Cuthbert," and not simply,
" Placid," " Basil," " Cuthbert," In like manner, when
a junior addresses a senior or a priest, or again, when-
ever he speaks of him, he should always be careful
to prefix to his religious name the word '' Father,"
as, for instance, '' Father John," " Father William,"
" Father Alphonsus."

The word in the Rule which represents this ap-
pellation is NonnuSj interpreted by St. Benedict to
mean " Reverend Father." There are various deriva-
tions of this word suggested by different commenta-
tors ; but that which seems to be most likely is that
it is a Latinised form of an Egyptian word signifying
elder. As the Abbot in every monastery holds the
place of Christ, he is to be addressed as " Domnus

342 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

Abbas," the Lord Abbot. The word is designedly
written Doinnus, and not Dominus, in order to dis-
tinguish it from the title of Him Who is King of
kings, and Lord of lords.

In many congregations of the Benedictine family
this title, which was at one time reserved exclusively
for the Abbot, is prefixed to the name of each Monk,
and he is called Doninus Wilfridus, or Dom Wilfrid.
As a general rule, however, only priests or elders are
addressed in this way.

The third rule appoints the meed of reverence
which the brethren are expected to accord to one
another whenever they meet. If a junior meets a
senior, he asks a blessing by sa^ang, " Benedicite ;" to
which the senior replies by saying, " Benedicat te
Deus," or some similar form of words. In times of
silence this blessing is asked and given by simply
bowing the head. Whenever a senior passes by the
place in which any juniors are seated, they must rise
and uncover their heads to do him reverence ; and if
he should wish to sit among them, they must with all
alacrity give him place, and not presume to sit with
him, unless he kindly invites them to do so. In this
way, and by these few simple rules, we are taught to
respect and to honour one another.

The Children of the Monastery. — From
this passage, many have thought that the children who
w^ere offered held a rank among themselves accord-
ing to the order in which they came to the monas-
tery ; and that when they reached the age of fifteen,
they were given among the brethren that rank
wdiich was due to them, thus obtaining precedence of

Election of the Abbot. 343

the grown-up m-en who during their childhood had
come to religion, and had made their profession. One
or two discreet fathers were placed over them to keep
them under discipline ; but besides these, any of the
brethren who chanced to see them in any way mis-
conducting themselves, was empowered to reprehend
and to correct them. When they attained their fif-
teenth year they were released from this tutelage,
and incorporated among the brethren.

CHAPTER LXIII.

OF THE ELECTION OF THE ABBOT.

Mode of Election. — Knowing the importance
of a good Superior for every community, and that its
welfare, both temporal and spiritual, depends upon a
judicious choice, St. Benedict, while appointing the
method of procedure which is to be observed in the
election, is careful to fix for his children the principles
which are to guide them in selecting from among
themselves the man who is to hold sway over
them. That which they are to look to is not age,
nor nobility of birth, nor services rendered to the
monastery, nor learning apart from piety, nor piety
apart from learning ; but a virtuous life, combined
with that wisdom which is not of this world, which
Cometh down from the Father of light, from Whom
every good and perfect gift descends. This wisdom
is the science of the Saints, and consists in a practical

344 '^^^ Teaching of St. Benedict.

knowledge of the truths of our Catholic faith, and of
all the exercises of the religious life. Mere holiness-
of life in any Monk is not sufficient to entitle him to-
hold the Abbot's chair in a monastery ; nor, again,,
is mere intellectual ability without holiness of life.
If possible, both should be combined in him who is to
rule over others. But if there is no other choice than
between one who is merely virtuous, but void of
knowledge and indiscreet, and one who is filled with
all knowledge, but far inferior in point of virtue, yet,
provided that the latter is not vicious, but only frail,
he ought to be preferred to the other ; because his
science will enable him to guide his subjects aright,,
and keep them from evil ; whereas his frailty will
not hurt anybody but himself.

Having laid down these principles to guide them
in fixing their choice upon a suitable person, our
Holy Father next ordains that the power of election
shall be in the hands of those over whom the Abbot
is to rule ; for it, is but just that the governed should
have a voice in the election of those who are to govern
them. But though the power of election is in the
hands of the community, it is evident that their
choice is not an absolute one. For, while ordaining
that he who shall have been elected by the unanimous:
vote of the Monks shall be their Abbot, he yet inserts
a clause by which, when the votes are not unanimous^
the wiser portion of the community are enabled to-
secure the election of the more suitable man, " whom
a part, though few in number, shall choose with
greater wisdom and discretion." Therefore it is law^
ful to infer that, in these circumstances, the Bishop

• Election of the Abbot. 345

and the neighbouring Abbots were called in to deter--
mine the matter, and to instal him who, in their judg-
ment, was best fitted to assume the reins of power.
Also if it should unfortunately happen that a whole
community should unite in electing one who assented
to their loose and wicked method of life, even so this
election, though unanimous, was not absolute ; for on
learning the character of the man who had been-
chosen, it was in the power of the Bishop, in concert
with the adjoining Abbots, and, if need be, of the-
devout people, to eject the hireling shepherd, and to
set a truly God-fearing man over the Lord's sheep-
fold.

There are, however, two opinions concerning the
meaning of the clause, " whom a part, though few in
number, shall choose." The first is that of Hildemar,
who maintains that if out of fifty Monks two or three
should vote for the better man, their will must pre-
vail, and the object of their choice be seated in the
abbatial chair. The second is that of John Caramuel,,
who, in his commentary on this passage, says : " Our
Holy Father does not compare the lesser part to the
greater, but only a part to the whole. He says that
he is to be proclaimed Abbot whom either the whole
community shall elect, or at least a part of it who
are wiser and more discreet, though they are few in
number. An example will make our meaning
clearer. Suppose that there are twenty voters in any
given community. If all these vote for Peter, there
is no difficulty whatever, because they are unani-
mous. But if four vote for Peter, seven for John, six
for Paul, and three for Ambrose, our Holy Founder's

346 The Teachi7ig of St, Benedict.

will is that John should be Abbot. For although
the party who vote for him are few in comparison
with the whole community, yet they are more numer-
ous than the others are, and consequently must be
considered to be wiser and more discreet." Of these
two interpretations, Hildemar's is generally thought
to be the more exact rendering of St. Benedict's
mind. The person upon whom the community's
choice falls is to be made Abbot, even though he is
the " last in the community ;" that is to say, either
last by the lowliness of his birth, or last in the order
of profession ; for, though last in both these ways, he
may be ripe in manners, prudent, virtuous, and
enriched with all those qualifications which will make
him' a good ruler and an excellent religious man.

Institution of the Abbot. — Although our
Holy Father does not make any mention of the con-
firmation in office, or of the blessing given to the
Abbot by the Bishop, yet these ceremonies were, no
doubt, in use in his days. The '' Regula Magistri,"
written shortly after St. Benedict's death, gives a
detailed description of the election, the institution,
the confirmation, and the blessing of the newly-chosen
Abbot. It appears that his predecessor, when on his
death-bed, usually summoned the whole community
to his cell, and in their presence designated the Monk
whom he wished to succeed him. This was at once
made known to the Bishop, who came to the monas-
tery, and after celebrating Holy Mass inserted the
name of the new Abbot in the diptychs, and that
of his predecessor, if he was already dead, among
the names of the departed. When the Holy Sacrifice

Election of the Abbot. 347

was ended, and the Bishop had given to the new-
Abbot the kiss of peace, the brethren left the oratory,
and went to the chapter-house, followed by the
Bishop and the Abbot. The Bishop, seated in the
place of honour, then delivered to the Abbot a copy
of the Holy Rule, the keys of the cellarer, and an in-
ventory of all the property belonging to the monas-
tery, whether in movable or in immovable goods. At
the conclusion of a few words of exhortation addressed
to the Abbot, a procession was formed, and all repaired
to the church. On arriving there, the Bishop con-
ducted the Abbot to his stall, seated him in it, and
presented to him the abbatial robe. After an ap-
propriate prayer, offered up by the Bishop, the Abbot
rose from his seat, approached the altar, and laid
on it the copy of the Riile which had been presented
to him in the chapter-house. After a moment's
pause he took it from the altar, and the community
sang the verse, " Confirma hoc Deus quod operatus es
in nobis," with a " Gloria Patri" at the end. Descend-
ing the altar-steps, the Abbot prostrated before the
Bishop, and humbly asked him to pray for him.
Thereupon the Bishop recited the prescribed prayers,
at the end of which he took his seat, and the Abbot,
coming and kneeling before him, kissed his knees.
After this he gave the kiss of peace to all the officials
of the monastery, to the Provosts, and to each of the
brethren. Then taking the keys which had been put
into his possession, he gave them to the cellarer. A
prayer was then offered up, on the conclusion of
which the Abbot sat in his chair, and each of the
community came before him and kissed his knees in

34^ The Teaching of St, Benedict.

token of submission. During this ceremony the
Prior of the monastery lay prostrate on the pavement
of the oratory. When all had paid their debt of
homage, the Abbot rose from his seat, and approach-
ing the spot where the Prior lay, raised him from the
ground ; then kneeling, he embraced his knees, and
rising gave him the kiss of peace. Thus concluded
the ceremony observed in instituting an Abbot.

Present Legislation. — Since the days of St.
Benedict the canon law of the Church has legislated
for all these matters, and that law has to be observed
in all elections, otherwise they become null and void.
In our congregation, before any one is eligible for the
office of President-General, Abbot, Definitor of the
Regimen, Provincial, Prior, whether cathedral or con-
ventual, Definitor in England, Master in Theology^
Preacher-General, he must have been at least nine
years in religion, and have held some one of the
following offices: Procurator in the Roman Court,
secretary to the President, missioner, chaplain to
Nuns, Sub-prior, cellarer, accountant, l councillor,
either novice-master or junior master in some capi-
tular monastery. Professor of Theology or of Philo-
sophy in some college. It is furthermore required
for the office of President-General that a person
either should have been or should actually be a mem-
ber of the chapter.

All the members of the chapter have a vote in
his election. To examine these votes, five members
of the chapter are chosen. The mode of election is
as follows : the secretary of the chapter gives to each

1 Depositarius.

1

I

Election of the A bbot. 349

member a catalogue of the names of all those who
are eligible for the office of President-General. But
before handing the catalogue to the elector, he cuts
from it, in the presence of the Scrutators, the name
of the person to whom it is given. When each has
received his catalogue of names, all withdraw into the
hall of the chapter except the five Definitors or Scru-
tators, who remain in an adjoining room called the
Definitory. Each elector, going apart, cuts off from
the catalogue the name of him whom he deems fittest
for the presidential office. One of the Monks who
acts as doorkeeper then calls the electors by name,
who come two and two into the Definitory, and, in
the presence of the Definitors, cast the folded paper
containing the name of the candidate for whom they
vote into an urn prepared for the purpose, and the
carefully folded residue of the paper, from which that
name has been cut, into another urn which is kept
hard by. The Definitors who are to examine these
votes are themselves ordered to give theirs in the
way described above, previously to the admission of
any of the electors into the Definitory. When all
except the Definitors or Scrutators have returned
from the Definitory, the first Definitor shakes the
urn that the voting-papers may be mingled together.
In concert with his colleagues he then draws them
forth and counts them, to see whether their number
corresponds with the number of voters. If the voting-
papers are either fewer or more numerous than is the
number of electors, the votes must be taken a second
time. But if they are found to correspond with the
number of electors, the election is valid, and the

350 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

Definitors proceed to examine the voting-papers.
Opening each of them, the first Definitor shows it
to his colleagues, and if more than half are for any
given person, that person is canonically elected. This
holds good if the number of voters is equal ; but if
the number is an unequal one, then he who ob-
tains the majority carries the election. The first
Definitor then writes out the document which testi-
fies to the election ; this is signed by him and by
his colleagues, and is carried by them into the hall
of the chapter, and read out before the assembled
fathers.

Election of Conventual Priors. — In the
election of conventual Priors all those who actually
belong to their respective communities, and who are
in holy Orders, have a right to vote. In their voting-
papers they write the name of him whom they deem
most worthy to hold the office, and send this signed
and sealed to the general chapter.

As in the election of the President, so also in the
election of the Priors it is the person who has received
more than half the votes, or the majority of them,
who is chosen to hold the office of Prior.^

As the ceremony of installation is the same for
a President as for a Prior, a description of the cere-
mony in the case of the one will suffice for a descrip-
tion of the ceremony in the case of the other. On
the day appointed for this function, the Religious

2 It must, however, be borne in mind that the vote of com-
munities for their respective Priors is not a decisive, but only a
consultive, vote. The Definitors in reality are the persons who
elect.

Election of the A bbot. 3 5 1

who, during the vacancy of the priorship, has presided
over the monastery summons all the brethren to the
chapter-house. When they are assembled, the newly-
elected Prior is introduced, and delivers into the
hands of this person the document which testifies to
his canonical election. This is given to the secretary
of the council, who reads it out in a clear distinct tone
of voice, so that all may hear. At the conclusion of
this, the Prior prostrates upon the earth. After a
short pause, the chief person present gives him a sign
to rise. He does so, but remains kneeling, while the
brethren stand in their places. In this humble pos-
ture he briefly thanks the fathers of the congregation
for entertaining about him, who is so unworthy, senti-
ments of so great esteem and confidence as to raise
him to this important office. He expresses his
willingness to take upon himself the weight of its-
burden, and concludes by asking all present earnestly
to pray for him, that God may give him strength to
bear it, and in a becoming manner to fulfil its many
arduous duties.

When he has ceased speaking, the chief person
present raises him from the ground, and in a few sim-
ple words tells him of the great hopes which the whole
congregation entertain concerning his ability to fill,
with profit to the Order and with credit to himself,
the post to which the suffrages of his brethren have
raised him. He concludes by promising, both on his
own part and on the part of the community, most
earnestly to pray to God to bless his rule, and to make
it prosperous for the temporal as well as the spiritual
interests of the monastery.

352 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

A crucifix is then brought, and put into the hands
of the person who is performing the ceremony of the
installation. Laying his hand upon this, the Prior, in
the presence of God, makes a solemn promise that he
will take no steps whatever to prolong the term of his
office beyond the four years for which he has been
elected; that he will observe the constitutions ; and if
he should offend against that which they ordain, that
he will submit to the penalties which they impose.

After this he makes another solemn promise never
to alienate or to transfer to others any monastery,
residence, or house, or any notable portion of the
immovable goods belonging to any monastery, or
residence, or house. After making this promise he
lays his hand on the Cross, thereby calling God to
witness the sincerity of his promise.

In accordance with the decree of Pope Pius IV.,
he next makes his profession of faith by reading the.
Creed drawn up by that Pontiff. At the conclusion
of this the hymn Te Deum laudamus is intoned, and
all go in procession from the chapter-house to the
church, the Prior walking last, between the two high-
est dignitaries present on the occasion. These three
ascend the altar-steps and kneel until the end of the
Te Deum, The prayers prescribed in the Ritual are
then sung, and when they are ended, the two who
are kneeling next to the Prior raise him up and con-
duct him to the chief stall of the choir, and, kneeling
before him, kiss his hand. This is done by each mem-
ber of the community, and when all have thus testi-
fied their obedience and submission, a short prayer
is secretly said by all present, the sign is given to

Election of the Abbot, 2>S'}>

rise, and the ceremony of installation, or of *' institu-
tion," as it is called, is thus brought to an end.

The Qualities to be looked for in an
Abbot. —He who is thus, as it were, "set upon a
candlestick," and vested with authority over others,
has an office put into his hands which is weighty
in itself, and brimful of the gravest responsibility.
Therefore the man who is deemed worthy to exer-
cise its manifold duties ought to be no ordinary man.
A glance at the requirements which St. Benedict
looks for in one who, as he expresses it, " holds the
place of Christ," will suffice to convince any one of
the exceptional qualities which the Abbot ought to
possess, if he would quit himself well of the import-
ant trust committed to his charge. Holding the
place of Christ, his chief duty is to be to his commu-
nity a good shepherd. He has to impart to them that
spiritual food, that science of the Saints, which leads
men to the kingdom of God. Therefore he must
be a man " learned in the Divine Law." By this is
meant that he should be thoroughly well versed in
the knowledge of Holy Scripture, which is a treasure
whence learning of every description may be drawn,
to meet and to supply the manifold necessities of
those who look to him for instruction. It means
also an acquaintance with ecclesiastical and with
monastic laws, by means of which he will be able
.to keep his flock in close communion of spirit with,
and in exact obedience to, the Church. It means, in
fine, familiarity with the writings of the great Fathers
of the Church, who are looked upon as the most
trustworthy exponents of her doctrine, and as the

AA

354 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

best interpreters of the word of God. Any one armed
with this divine science may with confidence sit in
the abbatial chair of doctrine, for he will put before
the sheep committed to his care wholesome food,
with which they will be able to sustain their spiritual
life. It is not necessary that he should be learned in
human science ; he may be ignorant of that which
passes for literature ; he may not possess what, in
the parlance of the day, is called " culture.'' This
kind of knowledge puffs up and intoxicates the soul ;
it fills without nourishing, it inflates without edifying ;
but the science of the Saints is for him an indispens-
able necessity ; like godliness, " it is profitable for all
things ;" it enables him to fashion the lives of his
subjects upon the pattern shown to him by Jesus
Christ, and to prepare them for the enjoyment of the
life of glory which is to come.

Besides having learning, which will enable him to
set before them the Divine Law, the Abbot must be
to them an example upon which they may look and
strive to imitate. Hence the necessity for him to be
spotless, upright, and pure. His life must be so holy
in this respect as to be heroic, angelic, beyond the
reach of suspicion ; so that, like our Divine Lord, he
may stand forth before those who are even hostile to
him, and say, "Which of you shall convict me of sin ?''
The sobriety which our Holy Father deems necessary
for him, in addition to spotless purity of life, is not
merely that abstemiousness in point of drink which
we should say is inseparable from the life of one who
is pure and learned in the Divine Law, but that
general self-command by which a man has himself

Election of the Abbot. 2)SS

completely in hand, and never suffers passion to hurry
him into any excess ; but is so calm and so self-
possessed as to be able to give his mind up to prayer
and to holy reading, without being disturbed and
carried away during the course of them by the trifles
which are capable of raising a very tempest in. the
heart of him who has not won for himself this sobriety
of spirit. Another quality which is closely allied to
this — inasmuch as one who is calm, sober, and self-
possessed is able to take correct views of the various
subjects upon which he is called to decide— is mercy,,
which a Superior must possess in his heart, or he will
never be a good ruler. If he be calm, if he be
not easily blinded and hurried away by passion, he
will examine and weigh all the circumstances of per-
sons, times, places ; consequently, he will be able
to discriminate between one who has been carried
away by the impetuosity of his nature and induced
to commit some fault, and one who has yielded
through malice to the seduction of evil. He will
therefore know how to weigh out the degree of
punishment, or of correction, or of chiding, which
each case deserves; moreover, considering his owa
frailty and many shortcomings, he will always en-
deavour to err on the side of mercy. He will be just,,
but not cruel ; he will be merciful, but not soft ;
where punishment is called for, he will inflict it ; but
he will never make it heavier than the fault deserves.
In all these corrections he will try to manifest
another quality which St. Benedict requires in an.
Abbot : he will be prudent. A prudent man is one
who looks before him to the end which he wishes to

3 5 6 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

gain, employs the fittest means for securing it, and
removes the obstacles which are likely to hinder
him from effecting his purpose. What does he aim
at in all these corrections ? It is at the amelioration
of the souls of those who are committed to his charge.
Therefore he will have the wisdom sometimes not
to see faults which are committed. Those which are
committed he will sometimes not be in a hurry to
correct. When he does set about this difficult but
necessary task, he will do it without passion, without
the spirit of revenge. He will correct with a soul
which is untroubled. He will point out the fault, he
will show the way to correct it, he will take care
that it is mended. He will rebuke, but he will not
always do so ; and when he does rebuke, it will not
be in a proud and haughty manner, but humbly and
meekly. As our Holy Father furthermore requires,
he will be discreet ; he will not be excessive in any-
thing ; he will carefully avoid too great severity and
too great remissness. Besides this, he will endeavour
to have for every one under his jurisdiction that con-
siderate kindness which will take into account the
strength, whether corporal or spiritual, of each, and
endeavour so to fit the yoke to the shoulders of all
that the strong may have somewhat to strive after,
and the weak naught from which they will flee away.
Faults to be avoided. — There are certain
faults into which those who are vested with author-
ity are likely to fall ; against these St. Benedict warns
the Abbot, and earnestly exhorts him to avoid them,
or if unhappily he should already have contracted
them, to do his utmost to eliminate them from his

E Lection of the A bbot. 2>S1

conduct. The first of these is one into which men
almost unconsciously drift who suffer themselves to
be oppressed by the weight of the burden and of the
responsibility which their office imposes upon them.
They ^x^ftill of care ^ which looks out through every
feature, and makes itself painfully felt in every move-
ment of their body. Their brow is wrinkled with
thought, their eyes are restless, they are abstracted
in mind, they are short and abrupt in speech, they
have an anxious uneasy air, and their presence among
their subjects is as the passing of a dark cloud across
the sky, blotting out the sunshine, and flinging a
gloomy shadow into hearts which, but a moment be-
fore, were full of light and of joy.

A second fault is the absence of that evenly-
balanced temper of mind which keeps them from
falling into any excess. St. Benedict says. " The
Abbot must not be excessive {nimius) in anything."
He must be neither prodigal nor parsimonious ;
neither rigorous nor lax ; neither distant nor familiar ;
neither careless of temporalities nor too deeply
engrossed in them. His aim must be to hold that
middle course in which, as we are told, virtue is
thought to consist. By endeavouring to hold that,
he will succeed in steering clear of any excess, and
so avoid that shipwreck which is the inevitable fate
of him who abandons the middle stream, and ventures
to hug the shore. One of the excesses into which he
must earnestly strive not to fall is obstinacy of judg-
ment. Though set up in the place of authority, and
holding the reins of power, he is told by our great
legislator frequently to ask and to listen to the counsel

35 8 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

of his subjects. This is a piece of sage advice as old
as the time of Solomon, and they who follow it are
saved from a multitude of errors. Every man has a
different standpoint from which he views the various
questions which are submitted to his judgment, and
consequently the Superior who will patiently examine
into these will have thrown on the matter concerning
which he has asked for counsel a brilliant light,
which will enable him to look round the whole sub-
ject, and see it in its various bearings. But if he first
form a judgment and then ask for counsel, having
previously come to the conclusion that there is no
second opinion on the matter, he will persist in it in
spite of all the reasons which can be brought against
it. He will see it from only one point — and that
point, in all likelihood, a wrong one from which to
view it — from which only a very partial corner sort
of view can be obtained ; and the consequence will
be that he will be guilty of countless blunders, over
which one might make merry, if the outcome of them
affected only the blunderer himself But unfortu-
nately a Superior obstinate in his views and in his
judgment frequently involves his whole community
in the evils which result from his persistent opposi-
tion to their ideas. Therefore let him avoid this great
fault, and give an attentive ear to that which is sug-
gested by his subjects ; for God will oftentimes make
known to him, through the most inexperienced of his
flock, that which is not grasped by the intelligences
of the worldly-wise and self-sufficient.

St. Benedict mentions two other 'faults which
every Superior must shun, and carefully keep out of

Election of the Abbot. 359

his heart. These are jealousy and suspicion. He
may have under his rule men who in some, and per-
haps in many, respects are his superiors. They have
influence, they have authority ; men consult them,
acquiesce in their judgments, bow to their decisions.
It is hard for one's poor unaided human nature to see
this, and yet not to revolt against it, to feel lowered
by it, and, as it were, so eclipsed that one's light has
quite gone out. But nature that is helped by grace
will set its heel upon this writhing snake, and crush
its head. The demon of jealousy is quickly exorcised
by the power of divine grace, and man rises superior
to all these small, narrow, degrading views. The
Superior will be glad, he will rejoice that he is not
the only prophet in Israel, that there are others also
who can prophesy and advance the kingdom of God ;
he will use them, and thus these very occasions which
might have been ruinous to his soul's salvation, will be-
come so many helps to raise him in the scale of virtue,
and to make him share in all the good works and
the glorious deeds of those who are under his charge.
Suspicion is a meanness which must be ejected,
which must not be suffered to get even a' footing in
his heart, so as to need ejectment. A Superior must
do his duty, and then suffer those who are under him
to do theirs, without troubling them more than is
necessary. K judicious vigilance is a powerful incite-
ment to all persons to act up to rule. But a vigil-
ance which is such as to betray a want of ti^ust is so
provocative of the demon of resistance, who sleeps in
even the best natures, that it evokes him, and causes
him to rebel with such emphasis and fury as to

360 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

destroy all spirit of obedience. This is an evil which
suspicion generates in the hearts of subjects. That
which it causes to spring up in the heart of the Supe-
rior who is haunted by it is a cause of so great torture
that it will completely destroy his peace. Unless his
eyes are upon his subjects, he fancies that they are
not doing their duty. If he sees them talking toge-
ther, he imagines that they are plotting against him.
If they are sad, he thinks that it is because he is pre-
sent. If they laugh, it is to ridicule him. When they
ask for any exemption, he is on the alert to discover
some trickery. If they are ill, he deems that it is
a mere pretence. Thus painfully alive to all that
passes under his notice, and conjuring up a thousand
imaginary ills which exist only in his own brain, he
becomes an endless source of worry and of unrest to
himself, and a thorn in the side of each member of
his community. Hence the necessity for crushing out
of the mind every incitement to suspicion.

Therefore let Superiors frequently reflect upon
these wise counsels of our great lawgiver. Though
carrying the burden of the abbatial care, let them not
seem to stagger beneath it, but to bear it lightly.
Let them wear a gladsome look which will be a source
of joy to their children. Let them not be guilty of
any excess in any of their commands. In council
let them not obstinately adhere to their own opinion,
but listen with humility to the opinion of others,
remembering that God will sometimes reveal His
will through the mouths of even babes and sucklings.
Let them not be jealous of others, but rejoice when
many are found who can, with an ability even superior

Election of the Abbot. 361

to their own, push forward the interests of the Church
and of their own community. Above all things, let
them never admit the demon of suspicion into their
minds, otherwise they may bid a long farewell to that
peace and repose of heart which they came into the
cloister to enjoy.

Mode of Government. — In this admirable
chapter St. Benedict lays down for the instruction of
Superiors in their manner of government a few simple
principles, which are so full of heavenly wisdom that,
if they be made the guiding stars of any one who
holds sway over others, they will enable him to steer
his course through the multitudinous difficulties which
lie in his way, and to enter the port of safety without
either himself incurring loss or inflicting any damage
upon others. In the first place, he must make it his
aim " to do goodl' and not simply " to rule!' Power
is put into his hands not as an end, in the enjoyment
of which he is to rest, but as a means to procure an
end, which is the advantage of those over whom he is
set to rule. Therefore he is not to seek the honour
which is usually accorded to power, nor the influence
which it is always able to command, nor the glory
with which it is invested. All these are merely selfish
gratifications, which must be discarded. The honour
and the glory must be given to God ; the influence
used as a lever to raise and to turn men's hearts to
Him. All that he must look for is the labour of
ruling ; whatever else arises from it must go to God.
This labour is to do good unto those over whom he
rules ; to reform in them that which is evil ; to correct
that which is faulty ; to perfect that which is good.

362 The Teaching of SL Benedict.

What patience, what self-restraint and self-efface-
ment, what courage, what perseverance, are required
in him who will set before himself this one only aim
in his rule ! Merely to rule is an easy matter. Men
are not difficult to drill and to discipline into a
perfect mechanical outward decorum. A police
inspector or a sergeant will do this for you with
tolerable efficiency. But to drill or to discipline the
heart into willing obedience both to God and to man
for God's sake, this is the task which only a man
whose aim is to do good, and not merely to rule, is
able effectually to accomplish.

Another principle which is given to him to aid him
in doing this is to "prefer mercy to justice." Kind-
ness, gentleness, forbearance — in one word, mercy —
finds its way into a heart which will remain hard and
impervious as flint or as steel against the rudest
strokes of justice. Men are sure to offend against
the wisest laws, the most stringent rules. They fail
not through malice, but through weakness. It is not
the heart which is at fault, but the will. To draw
forth the sword of justice against these offenders, and
to wield it with a swift, unsparing hand, is an easy
task, and may cause the fault to disappear from the
light of day, but not from the will. Mercy, however,
is more patient ; it shrinks not from trouble nor from
labour. It is mild and gentle. It calls the offender to
its tribunal. It speaks gently to him. It points out
the evil which has been done. It displays before him
the means to undo it. It speaks words of encourage-
ment. All this drops on him as the gentle rain from
heaven. The heart is softened. The hurtful evil is

Election of the Abbot. 363

carefully removed, but no rankling wound is inflicted ;
the will is fortified, and by degrees ceases to offend ; a
soul is saved which might, by the application of jus-
tice only, have been driven into the camp of the devil.
Men who are accustomed to exalt mercy above
justice, and to be at the pains of endeavouring to heal
sick souls instead of lording it over them, are sure to
make use of the third principle given by St. Benedict
to guide his children in the manner of their govern-
ment. They will show their zeal, their love of justice,
their hatred of evil, by directing all these against the
vices and the faults which they perceive in their sub-
jects, and not against the subjects themselves. Again,
in their corrections they will not be guilty of any
excess, by punishing a slight fault as if it were some-
thing grave, or a grave fault as if it were something
of no consequence. Lastly, their aim will be to make
themselves loved, and not feared. We think that any
Superior who makes little account of this principle,
and by his action aims at striking terror into the hearts
of his subjects, has utterly failed to grasp the spirit of
the Benedictine Rule. . He is not the Abbot whose
portrait is drawn for us by our Holy Father in the
pages of that Rule. He has not even a faint resem-
blance of that good Father, whose place we are taught
to believe that he holds. He is not a shepherd, but
a hireling, whose own the sheep are not, and who con-
sequently cares not for them. He will drive, but will
not lead. He will strike, but will not heal. He will
scatter, but will not seek after those who flee from his
severity. Therefore let him who would be a Superior
after God's own heart always remember Whose place

o

64 7^he Teaching of St. Benedict,

it IS that he holds. He stands in the place of Jesus
Christ. He is called by His title. Let him study
to clothe himself in the spirit of that loving Father.
Then he will make it his aim to do good rather than
to rule ; he will exercise mercy rather than justice ;
he will hate vices, but will love the brethren committed
to his care ; he will be guilty of no excess ; and, above
all things, he will make it his aim to be loved by his
subjects, rather than to be feared by them.

CHAPTER LXIV.

OF THE PREPOSITUS OR PROVOST.

It is evident from this chapter that, previously to
St. Benedict's time, it was the custom for the Bishop
and the Abbots who presided at the monastic elec-
tions to institute the Provost just in the same way in
which they instituted the Abbot. The Provost was
the official in the monastery next after the Abbot, and
held a position similar to that of a Sub-prior in a
monastery presided over by a Prior. The inconveni-
ences arising from this method of institution were
pointed out by St. Benedict. The first of these was
that the Provost, seeing his election to be precisely
similar to that of the Abbot, began to fancy that
there was committed to him an authority equal to that
of the Abbot. He regarded himself as an equal of
the Abbot. He questioned his authority. When
orders were issued which did not meet with his appro-

The Provost or Prior. 365

val, he plainly intimated this, if not to the Abbot him-
self, then to the circle of adherents whom it is so easy
for any one in his position to collect around him. The
consequences were natural. It was not unusual in
monasteries to find two factions, the one paying alle-
giance to the Abbot, the other to the Provost. Hence
arose all the ills of party strife. Each faction watched
the other with that virulent dislike and distrust which
are engendered by rival interests and by rival claims.
Reports were circulated by the one side detrimental
to the character of the other. These gave rise to
angry discussions, to quarrels, to heartburnings, to
unseemly language. There was much uncharitable-
ness, much envy, great disunion, and great disorder.
The little kingdom was divided against itself, and
unless some superior power interposed and settled the
points in dispute, it came to naught. Those who were
desirous of quiet sought an asylum elsewhere ; those
who gloried in the excitement of strife remained, and
imperilled the salvation of their souls. To put an end
to this crying evil, St. Benedict went straight to its
very source. He ordained that the Abbot should be
sole and absolute monarch in his little realm. All
authority was to emanate from him. All officials
were to receive their power from his hands, in that
measure and in that degree which it might please him
to determine. There could not then be two factions,
since there was but one head, to which all were sub-
ject. But as a further guarantee of peace and of
union, it is our Holy Father's will that the duties
which, before his time, ordinarily fell to the lot of the
Provost should be given to the Deans. Thus the

366 The Teaching of St. Benedict. '

office, being divided among many, lessened the danger
of pride in those to whom it was intrusted.

The Provost's Duties. — When, however, there
seemed to be some necessity for the appointment of a
Provost, it was requisite that there should be incon-
testable evidence to that effect. The community had
humbly to petition for his election ; they had to show
that there was some reasonable cause for instituting
this official ; and the Abbot had to give his consent
After this the brethren were consulted by the Abbot,
in order that, from their various opinions, he might be
able to ascertain whom they wished to have raised
to this important post. Then he chose that member
of his community whom he thought best fitted for
this trust. As to his duties, our Holy Father speaks
in only very general terms, saying, " Let him reverently
do that which he shall be ordered by the Abbot.''
From other sources, however, we can gather that it
was his business to acquaint the Abbot with any
misdemeanour or with any abuse which he himself
could not well correct and amend ; to care for the
general discipline of the monastery ; to take the
Abbot's place and to fulfil his duties during the
Abbot's absence ; to exercise a sort of general super-
vision of the monastic property ; in one word, to be
the Abbot's right-hand man, his trusty friend, and
prudent councillor. It is evident that the qualifica-
tions necessary in one who would fill this post with
any degree of efficiency should be very similar to
those which are requisite in the Abbot. He should
be a large-hearted, clear-headed, kindly- disposed,
God-fearing man, with a zeal for monastic observ-

The Provost or Prior. ^Gy

ance ; discreet, prudent, considerate ; not morose in
countenance, not anxious in mind, not precipitate in
judgment, not obstinate in council. To a man of this
stamp an Abbot might with all confidence intrust the
government of his flock ; and the flock, under his wise
government, would not miss the guiding hand of the
chief pastor.

His Punishment. — A man of this description is
hard to find ; therefore men of an inferior mould must
be selected to occupy this post. Some of these, not
having that virtue which is requisite to keep them
steady when raised to so great an eminence above
their brethren, are puffed up with pride, because of the
honour which is conferred upon them. Whenever
these begin to manifest the malignant spirit which is
in them, and to gainsay the enactments of the Holy
Rule, St. Benedict requires in the first place " that
their delinquencies should be proved against them.''
Mere denunciation will not suffice. To this there
succeeds a fourfold warning. Should the warning
prove unavailing, the usual course of correction is
resorted to, ending at last in ignominious expulsion,
when every other means has failed.

It is worthy of remark that in this passage our
Holy Father speaks of the Rule as the " Ho/y Rule^
In consequence of this, some have thought that this
chapter could not have been written by him, as it is
not likely that one so deeply imbued with the spirit of
humility would have styled any production of his
holy ; but if we remember that he might so style his
Rule, not because it was written by himself, but
because there are in it holy and salutary principles,

368 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

and devout practices of asceticism which lead men to
perfection, we can see at a glance that he might with
all humility and propriety call his Rule the ''Holy
Ruler

The Provost in these our Days. — As the
Provost was the second man in the monastery, it fol-
lows that any one who holds that position, by whatever
name he may be called, is the legitimate represent-
ative of St. Benedict's Provost. As a matter of fact,
this title, in the ages which succeeded to our Holy
Father's day, gave place to that of Prior in monasteries
in which there was an Abbot, and to'that of Sub-prior
in those presided over by a Prior. At the present day,
and particularly in our congregation, the Sub-prior
is that which the Provost was in our Holy Father's
time. To be eligible for this office, a Monk must have
been at least seven years in the habit. He is not
voted to it either by the community or by the council ;
but is nominated to it by the Prior, after the latter has
heard the opinion of his council. In this particular
matter, however, he is not bound to follow their advice ;
but may choose as his Sub-prior any Monk whom it
may please him to select, even though his council may
be opposed to the man of his choice. If there should
happen to be any member of the general chapter resid-
ing in the monastery, the Sub-prior's place is imme-
diately after him. He yields to him in precedence only,
but not in jurisdiction ; for whenever the Prior is
absent it is the Sub-prior's duty to preside in his place.
The extent of that jurisdiction depends upon the will
of the Prior ; it is far-reaching or it is limited, just as
it shall please him to determine. Whenever any

The Provost or Prior. 369

faults are committed by any of the community, he has
power to take notice of them and to correct them* But
if they are committed in the presence of the Prior, he
must not presume either to notice or to correct them ;
for that would be to usurp the authority of his Supe-
rior. Though it is forbidden in our constitutions for
one Monk to enter another's cell, yet the Sub-prior
may enter the cells of all the community ; but with-
out express leave from the Prior he is not allowed to
examine their desks, nor anything else which is given
to them for their use. If the Prior should ever be
compelled by any business to be absent for a long
time from his community, it is the Sub-prior who
takes his place, but only if the Prior and the council
shall think that it is expedient for him to do so.
Nevertheless, during this time of his presidency it is
not in his power either to appoint any of the com-
munity to any office, or to dismiss any of them from
the office which he happens to hold. In virtue of
his office the Sub-prior is a member of the coun-
cil, and whenever, during the Prior's absence, any
important business calls for immediate settlement,
he is empowered to convene the members of it, and
to take their advice on the matter which claims
their attention. The precedency which, in virtue of
his office, is granted to him before all except chapter
men is not accorded to him outside the monastery.
Among his other brethren he holds only that rank
which is his from the date of his entrance into the
Order. If it should ever happen that the Prior is
for some fault suspended for a time from his office,
the Sub-prior assumes the reins of government, pro-

BB

2 JO The Teaching of St. Benedict.

vided that he has the qualifications necessary for the
exercise of the functions which will then fall to his
lot. Whenever an appeal is rnade against the Prior,
it is to the Sub-prior that the sentence against him is
sent. Lastly, one of the chief duties of the Sub-prior,
and, perhaps, his most important one, is to go before
the rest as an example of regular observance, upon
which they may look as upon a model. He ought to
be present at all the conventual acts, and to show
in his behaviour that decorum and that religious
modesty which will inspire respect into the hearts of
all, and move them to imitate. He should be observ-
ant of silence ; he should be punctual ; he should be
prompt in obedience. Above all things, he should
carefully guard himself against that spirit of pride of
which our Holy Father has so great a dread. Then
he will in very truth be a Provost after the heart of
our great founder, and will merit the reward which
is given to the good and faithful servant in the house
of God.

CHAPTER LXV.

THE PORTER OF THE MONASTERY.

The Porter of the Monastery. — In early
times the Porter's office was one of great dignity and
responsibility. Our Holy Father evidently regarded
it as such, for, after treating of the appointment of
the Abbot and of the Provost, he next gives us some
instruction about the Porter. From this circumstance

The Porter of the Monastery. 371

some have thought that he who kept the gate of the
monastery was third in rank among the brotherhood.
We cannot, however, pretend to determine this ; but,
judging from the quahties required in any one who
held this office, we should say that, whatever his
position may have been, he was a trustworthy man,
upon whose discretion the Abbot could depend. In
the first place, St. Benedict requires that he should
be an elderly man, either in years or in character,
"for a good understanding supplies for length of
years." Consequently the Porter would generally
be one of the older Monks, whose blameless life and
many virtues had endeared him to his Superior, and
caused him to be regarded as one from whom men
of every condition and of every degree would derive
naught but edification. In addition to age, or ripe-
ness of years, it was furthermore required that he
should be a wise man — that is to say, intelligent,
discreet, wary, and not easily deceived. St. Benedict
seems to limit the range of this wisdom to the ability
to understand the wishes of the various persons who
presented themselves at the monastery gate, and to
give a suitable answer to their demands, either by
himself replying to their questions, or by conveying
to them the reply of the Abbot. This seems to
require a very limited amount of brain-power, but
any one who will take the trouble to question his
servants concerning the answers which they are told
to carry to the door will find that, easy as it may
appear to be, scarcely one out of every ten can
correctly transmit the message which is intrusted to
him. The Porter did not live in the monastery, but

37 2 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

in a cell near the gate of the external enclosure, so
that he might be at hand to answer every one who
called. One of the reasons for which St. Benedict
ordains that this official should be elderly is because
if he be aged, he will not be able to go far from his
post. There was usually given to him a young
Religious as an assistant. Hence, whenever the great
door was struck, the Porter first opened a small
wicket, received the message of the stranger, and ..
caused this at once to be conveyed to the Abbot by
the youthful assistant. It was only after receiving
the Abbot's reply that the gate was opened, and the
stranger was admitted. If a poor man standing
without cried for alms or for shelter, the Porter
answered, " Thanks be to God," to signify gratitude
to our Lord for thus manifesting Himself and coming
to the monastery in the person of the poor. Among
Benedictines this is the reply which is given when-
ever any one knocks at the door of a cell or of the
monastery. When either those who were rich, or
those who did not come to crave for assistance, but
simply to visit, boldly struck upon the gate for
admittance, the Porter within, as usual, first looked
through his wicket to see who the new-comer might
be, and " then invoked a blessing." It is the opinion of
some commentators that he gave his blessing to
the stranger ; of others, that he asked the stranger to
give him a blessing ; and of others, that he gave to
the stranger words of hearty welcome and of blessing.
The Porter's Duties. — According to St. Bene-
dict, the duties of the Porter are : humbly and rever-
ently to receive all strangers and visitors who come

The Porter of the Monastery. 373

to the gate of the monastery ; to give an answer to
the questions which they ask ; to announce their
arrival to the Abbot, or to the persons appointed to
entertain guests. From other sources, however, we
find that no small part of the duty of guest-master
devolved upon him. He was sometimes the cook, or
the assistant cook, who laboured in the Abbot's
kitchen, and looked after the external enclosure. The
loaves which were prepared for distribution among
the poor were given into his care, and the doling out
of them by way of alms was one of his daily duties.
In his keeping also were the watch-dogs of the
monastery. He looked to their well-being, and gave
them their food. Lastly, in those places in which it
was customary to carry the keys of the monastery to
the Abbot's room, when the signal for Compline had
been given, it was the Porter's duty to do this ; also
to take them thence on the following morning, in
good time to have all the gates open when the bre-
thren were about to go forth to their daily toil.

Arrangement of the Monastery. — The fact
of having to treat of the Porter, who is stationed at
the gate, doubtless inspired St. Benedict to write the
concluding words of this chapter. In these he shows
us the solicitude of his heart to prevent any of his
children from having any occasion for passing out
through that gate, for the purpose of mingling once
again with the people of the world which they had
forsaken. Hence no doubt it was that, in order to
comply with what they knew to be his desire, they
ordinarily chose a site for their monasteries in some
place far removed from the habitations of men, but

374 ^^^ Teaching of St, Benedict.

yet so favourably located that all the necessaries of
life might easily be procured within reach of their
abode. Their first care was that there should be no
dearth of water. This, if possible, was usually within
the enclosure, and near the* kitchen, for the conve-
nience of those who had to cook the food of the
brethren. On the land which surrounded their Mon-
astery they grew a sufficiency of corn to supply them-
selves with bread. In order to grind this corn into
flour, they must needs have a mill, which, like the well
of water, was to be within the enclosure. But because
our Holy Father has spoken of water within the pre-
cincts of the monastery, we must not therefore imagine
that this mill was similar to those which in these days
are built by the sides of the running streams. It is
most probable that at first the monastic mill was a
handmill, such as we read of in the Sacred Scripture,
or a mill worked by an ass. But as . time went on,
and men began to flock into the monasteries, the
water-mill was doubtless employed ; for they were in
use in the days of the Emperor Hadrian, and Vitru-
vius, who lived under Augustus, mentions the con-
struction of the wheels for these machines. Under
the- Emperor Honorius (A.D. 399) a law was made
imposing a fine on any one who should turn aside the
water of the streams which were used for working
these mills. Hence it is likely enough that wher-
ever this was possible, and the number of the com-
munity was so large as to require it, the Monks con-
structed these water-mills within their enclosure, or at
least upon their own lands.

Another requisite which was always built hard by

The Porter of the Monastery. '^']^

the monastery was the bakehouse, in which the loaves
of bread were made for the use of the Monks, Also
there was a garden, which supplied the vegetables,
which, together with bread, formed the staple of their
food. Moreover, there were exercised within the
monasteries all the various crafts, which furnished
the Monks with everything of which they stood in
need. Their flocks of sheep provided them with
wool, which weavers turned into cloth. From this
cloth their tailors made their various garments.
There were among the brethren shoemakers who
provided them with shoes. There were masons who
built for them. There were smiths who forged iron
tools for them. There were carpenters who made
their household furniture ; so that very rarely was
there any occasion for them to go beyond their own
estate to procure any article of which they might
stand in need. This was St. Benedict's wish, and so
deeply impressed was he with the necessity for having
it carried into effect, that he orders this portion of his
Rule frequently to be read in the community. By
this ordinance, commentators tell us that he meant
not only this particular passage, but the whole Rule
to be frequently read, so that no one, when corrected
for transgressing any part of it, might be able to
excuse his fault on the score of ignorance. Superiors
have taken so great care to comply with this mandate
that a portion of the Rule is read every day, either at
Prime or at Compline. Thus the whole Rule is read
through three times every year.

3/6 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

CHAPTER LXVL

OF THE BRETHREN WHO ARE SENT ON A JOURNEY.

Before they set forth. — Although St. Bene-
dict earnestly desired that his children should never
leave their monastery, yet he could not but foresee
that there would arise many circumstances which
would compel them from time to time to quit their
retreat, and once again to go forth into the world to
mingle with their fellow-men. Therefore, after speak-
ing of the porter who guards the monastery gate, he
next instructs those who are by necessity forced to
pass through it into the outer world, concerning what
they are to do before they set forth upon their
journey ; what they are to do when they return ; and,
by implication, what they are to do while they are
actually on their way. Some of the commentators are
careful to point out to us that our Holy Father in
this chapter speaks in the plural number, " oi brethren
who are sent on a journey," to let us see that he
wishes us, if possible, never to go forth alone. We
find this practice in full force among all the Religious
of early times ; and special mention is made of it in
the Rules of St. Antony, St. Macarius, St. Pacho-
mius, St. Basil, and St. Augustine. St. Gregory the
Great so strongly insisted upon it that he would not
assent to the wishes of some Monks who desired to
have a certain Constantine for their Abbot, because this
latter had gone on a journey alone. No doubt the
desire to imitate the Apostolic mode of travelling two

Brethren sent on a Journey. 277

and two had some influence in determining, in this
particular, the legislation of monastic founders ; but
besides this there were others of a more utilitarian
nature, which prompted them to insist upon their
subjects, if possible, never journeying alone. In the
first place, the presence of a fellow-Religious always
helps to suppress any desire to abuse that liberty
which a man enjoys when he is withdrawn from the
control of Superiors ; in times of temptation it is a
source of strength ; it forces upon us the observance
of the laws of monastic decorum ; laughter is re-
pressed ; levity of manner is avoided ; little presents
are refused ; and a certain amount of healthy restraint
is enforced. Therefore when any one was sent on a
journey, in order to transact any business, there was
always given to him one of his brethren, to be a com-
panion on the way.

Before setting forth, these brothers were ordered
to ask the prayers of the brethren and of the Abbot.
If they were to return on that same day, they simply
asked the Abbot's blessing, probably at the end of
one of the canonical hours, and then requested the
community to pray for them. But if they were going
on a journey which would occupy some weeks or
some months, they went from their places in the
choir to the steps of the sanctuary, and, either kneel-
ing or prostrate on the earth, besought the prayers of
all. The Abbot then said the versicle : " O Lord,
save Thy servants," &c.,and the prayer : "Graciously
hear our supplications, O Lord, we beseech Thee, and
order the goings of Thy servants in the safe path that
leadeth unto salvation in Thee, that, amidst all the

^yS The Teaching of St. Benedict.

manifold changes of this life's pilgrimage, Thy shield
may never cease from us : through Christ our Lord."
After this or some similar prayer, of which there are
many examples to be found in the pages of the various
commentaries, it was usual for the Abbot to give to
the travellers the kiss of peace. The brethren also
embraced them, and, with the blessing of their Father
Abbot and the prayers of their brethren, the wayfarers
set forth upon their journey. '

While they are absent. — While these brothers
were speeding on their way to accomplish the mission
upon which they had been sent, their brethren in the
monastery did not forget them. At the last prayer
of the Divine Office a solemn commemoration of
them was made, and the protection of God invoked
upon them. It is the opinion of some that this
prayer was made for them only at the end of Com-
pline, but by far the greater number of commentators
think that they were prayed for at the end of each of
the hours. At the present day it is the custom, on
the termination of any hour after which we leave
the choir, to say the short prayer, " May the divine
assistance remain always with us, and with our absent
brethren. Amen." It was thus that those who
remained in safety at home thought of and sought
help for those who were sent abroad. These latter
would be exposed to see many things which might
either disedify them or be perilous to their souls*
purity ; they would be forced, perchance, to hear
much which it would be better for them never to have
heard ; nay, they might be drawn into idle converse

Brethren sent on a Journey. 379

with men of the world, from whose words they would
not derive any benefit.

Therefore in the oratory fervent prayers went up
to God that their eyes might not behold vanity, that
their ears might not be filled with idle words, that
their lips might not speak guile. They themselves
were instructed, as we saw in a preceding chapter, not
to omit their accustomed exercises of piety. They
were to recite the Divine Office at the appointed
times, to apply to devout meditation, and to guard
themselves against the dangers which might threaten
their souls from that which they might either see or
hear on the way.

When they return. — From the wording of the
Rule we may conclude that the travellers would so
time their return as to arrive at the monastery
during the day {^^ ipso die quo redeimt''), or at least
before the hour for Compline, in order that the prayers
for those who had come back from a journey might
be said over them. If they could not do this, Hilde-
mar informs us that it was the custom of the Monks
in his country to retire to some dependency of the
monastery, or to the cell at the monastery gate, and
there await the next day, so as to enter " during the
day."

During each of the hours recited in choir on
that day, or most likely at the end of each of them,,
they went into the middle of the choir, and, prostrat-
ing themselves upon the earth, begged the prayers
of their brethren, that through these Almighty God
might pardon them the faults which during their
travels they might have committed by seeing, or by

380 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

hearing, or by speaking. In answer to their humble
petition, Smaragdus tells us that in his day the follow-
ing prayer was said : " O Almighty God, we beseech
Thee mercifully to pardon these Thy servants whom
Thou hast brought back to us safe from the perils of
their journey, and through the merits of Jesus Christ
our Lord to blot out the faults of which through
human frailty they may have been guilty."

After this they returned to the company of their
brethren. Naturally enough, these latter would be
eager to hear all their adventures ; but there was
upon them a most stringent prohibition, in virtue of
which they were not suffered to tell them anything
which might scandalise them, or disturb their peace
of mind, or call back memories which it were best to
keep at a distance. There was nothing, however, to
prevent them from speaking of the religious and edi-
fying incidents which had befallen them on their
journey. In our congregation, those who are sent on
journeys present themselves before the Prior, and,
kneeling if juniors, or bowing profoundly if seniors,
ask his blessing. On returning, the same ceremony
is observed, and an exact account is rendered of all
the expenses incurred during their absence.

CHAPTER LXVII.

IF A BROTHER IS ORDERED TO DO IMPOSSIBILITIES.

Impossible Commands. — St. Benedict here makes
a distinction between commands which are simply

Obedience in Impossibilities. 381

hard or grave, and commands which are impossible.
In order to understand in what sense he uses the term
" impossible/' we must see in how many ways any-
thing may be said to be impossible. "There are
four ways," says St. Ambrose, " in which anything
may be said to be impossible : first, it may be natur-
ally impossible ; thus it is naturally impossible for a
man to walk upon water : secondly, a thing may be
impossible to one man, owing to some infirmity under
which he is labouring, and yet not be impossible to
another ; thus it is impossible for a blind man to read
the printed pages of a book : thirdly, ignorance or
want of skill may in like manner make something
impossible for one which is not impossible for another ;
thus it is impossible for an uneducated man to interpret
the classics, or to explain philosophical questions, or
to deliver a speech upon some abstruse point of theo-
logy : fourthly, in consequence of some immutably
fixed resolve, it may be impossible for one man to
perform an action which another will do without the
slightest scruple ; thus, for one who is bound by vow
not to eat meat, or to be obedient to Superiors, or to
keep chastity, it is impossible to do any action or to
assent to any thought or to any desire which would
cause him to break his vow ; whereas one who is not
under the bond of a vow might do that which, in the
sense just explained, it would be impossible for the
other to do.

It is evident that this last kind of impossibility is
the only one which a Monk can never even attempt
to perform. No Superior has any right to order that
which is sinful, and consequently must never be

382 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

obeyed, if, to suppose an impossible case, he were
ever to order any of his subjects to do an action
which is forbidden by the law of God.

In all the other impossibilities^ that which our Holy
Father requires from his children is a readiness to
attempt their accomplishment, and not their actual
accomplishment itself; or, as it is sometimes put, he
desires his children to fulfil these impossible com-
mands, not in ejfect^ but in affection, Cassian gives
many instances of these impossible commands, such,
for example, as that imposed upon the Abbot John
in the beginning of his religious life. A huge rock
was lying in the way ; the Superior ordered him to
roll it aside : without a moment's hesitation, he applied
his shoulder to it with all his strength, and endea-
voured to move it. On another occasion, his Abbot
thrust a withered branch into the ground, and ordered
him to water it. This he continued to do every day
for the space of two years, carrying for a distance
of two miles the water which he was told to pour
upon it.

Hard Commands. — Those are considered to be
hard commands which are so difficult as to be capable
of accomplishment only after the greatest labour in
the case of manual work, or the greatest self-denial in
the case of orders which affect the powers of the soul.

With regard both to commands which are hard,
and to those which are impossible, our Holy Father's
injunctions are, in the first place, that we should
receive them without forming any judgment whether
they are of the one or of the other kind. If we reflect
that we are obeying God, and that by so doing we are

Obedience in Impossibilities. 383

preparing for ourselves a heavenly reward, we shall
not stay to consider the nature of the mandate which
is imposed upon us. Our chief anxiety will be to have
something, no matter how difficult it may be, to per-
form through motives of this excellent virtue. We
shall not think of the impossibility of effecting that
which is ordered, nor of the folly of him who has
issued this mandate ; but, out of reverence for Him
Whom we behold in our Superior, we shall without
hesitation undertake whatever it shall please him to
ordain.

In the next place, he wishes us not only to receive
these commands, but also to receive them with mild-
ness and obedience. By these words he gives us to
understand that we are to show no sign of unwilling-
ness or of displeasure in the expression of our coun-
tenance, and to restrain our lips from uttering any
words of refusal.

Representations to Superiors. — But al-
though St. Benedict orders us to receive with mild-
ness, and with an obedient spirit, the orders of our
Superiors, he does not prevent us from representing
to them our inability to carry these orders into effect,
provided that our representation is accompanied by
the following conditions.

First, we must show no signs of impatience at that
which has .been ordered ; but all humility, both in
words a^nd in demeanour. Secondly, we must choose
a suitable time and place in which to make our repre-
sentation ; that is to say, it must be made secretly,
and not openly before the community. Thirdly, it
must not be made in a proud and haughty manner,

384 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

as if rejecting or spurning the command. Fourthly,
it must not be made in the spirit of resistance to
authority. Fifthly, it must not be made in a contra-
dictory manner, proclaiming, for instance, that we
will not do that which has been ordered. Should the
Prior — by whom is meant the Superior — persist in his
order even after our representation, then our only
course is to do our best, and try to carry out his
desire. Such obedience as this is expedient for us,
because it brings our will to submit in difficult mat-
ters, and this self-denial is always conducive to our
eternal welfare.

CHAPTER LXVIII.

THAT NO ONE SHOULD DEFEND ANOTHER IN THE

MONASTERY.

What is allowed. — It may happen from time to
time that there is in the monastery some Monk whose
character is quite misunderstood, both by his immedi-
ate Superior and by the Abbot. Whatever he does is
seen by them through a false medium, and is therefore
distorted. His motives are suspected ; his actions
are misconstrued. He is regarded as a discontented,
rebellious subject, and, in consequence of this, very
frequently falls under their censure. Others, who are not
brought into such intimate contact with him as his
Superiors are, may see where the mistake lies ; those
also who have his confidence are perfectly well aware
that he is not that which he is suspected to be. Are

Defe7iding 07ie another. 385

they, then, prohibited, in consequence of this chapter,
from endeavouring to set matters right between him
and his Superiors? If they interfere in his case, or
in the case of some other, whom, in consequence of
severe correction, they perceive to be utterly dejected
and discouraged, would they be considered to be
tipholding or to be defending another, and, therefore,
to be violating this particular law of St. Benedict's ?
Most certainly not. Far from breaking this enact-
ment of the Rule, they would be conforming their
conduct with that spirit of charity which pervades its
legislation, and performing a praiseworthy action
which merits an eternal reward. They must be care-
ful, however, to make their suggestions to the Supe-
rior in a becoming manner. They must choose an
opportune occasion for performing their mission of
charity ; they must select a private place ; they must
humbly ask leave to speak to the Superior upon a
delicate subject ; then they must reverently and
humbly endeavour to point out in what the mistake
consists, and to suggest a way in which it may be
corrected. If upon all such occasions subjects will act
in this way with their Superiors, instead of meriting
reproof, they will deserve their praise and their sin-
cerest thanks.

What is forbidden. — Again, it may happen
that there is in the monastery some particular Monk
who has deservedly fallen under the displeasure of
his Superior, and who has been corrected for his
faults. The present chapter forbids any one in the
monastery either to uphold him in public, or to give
him countenance by private sympathy. No one must

CC

L

386 Tlie Teaching of St. Benedict.

presume to remark upon the punishment ; to say that
it is undeserved ; that it is excessive ; that it is dic-
tated by passion, by jealousy, by spite ; nor must any
one dare to maintain that what the culprit has done
is not a fault, or that if it is, it is justified by the cir-
cumstances of the case. By acting thus, a Religious
falls under the censure of our Holy Father ; for he
.does that which is forbidden by this chapter.

Why it is forbidden. — The reason which St.
Benedict assigns for prohibiting all these manifesta-
tions of partisanship is "because exceeding great
occasion of scandals may thence arise." One of the
greatest of these scandals is the private, particular
friendship which usually springs up between the
Monk who defends and the culprit who is defended.
Out of this there arise familiarities, secret meet-
ings, conversations, detractions of Superiors, criticisms
of their conduct, murmurings, discontent, rebellion.
Besides these, the Monk who has sinned is confirmed
m his sin ; the other who defends him sins both
against his own soul, and against that of him whom
he causes to persevere in his sin ; the authority of the
Superior is shaken ; the respect due to him is dimin-
ished ; and the constancy of his soul in attacking and
in fighting against abuses is somewhat relaxed. To
all these we may add obstinacy in error, and some-
times the ruin of the immortal soul. It is for these
reasons that our Holy Father forbids one Monk to
uphold or to defend another in the monastery, and
orders a more severe punishment than is usually
assigned for a fault to be inflicted upon him who
dares to transgress his mandate.

Correction ; Excoimmmication. 3 87

CHAPTER LXIX.

THAT NO ONE PRESUME TO STRIKE OR .

EXCOMMUNICATE ANOTHER.

Usurpation of Authority.— It is not at all
unlikely that the legislation of the seventieth chap-
ter, in which the juniors are ordered to obey their
seniors, necesssitated the provisions which are made
in this. For in consequence of that chapter, a senior
might thus reason with himself: " If I have a right:
to command and to reprehend those who are my
juniors in the habit, I ought also to have the right to
chastise and to excommunicate them, if they refuse
me that obedience which the Rule orders them to
pay." Our Holy Father, however, is careful to point
out to all who feel inclined to arrogate to themselves
this plenitude of power, which is vested in the Abbot
only, and which may by him be delegated unto others,
that authority to command and to reprehend does
not necessarily imply authority also to correct by
stripes and by excommunication.

Prevention of this Usurpation. — Therefore
in order to prevent* any usurpation of this authority
on the part of those who, by reason of their seniority
in religion, might consider that this also was due unto
them, he ordains that only the Abbot, and those unto
whom the Abbot may think fit to grant this power,
shall have authority to correct with the rod and with
the sword of excommunication. This excommuni-
cation was not ecclesiastical, but only that which

388 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

separated offenders against monastic discipline from
the company of their brethren, and from the common
table. With respect to the use of the rod, it is likely
that the Abbot, in person, rarely inflicted this punish-
ment, but ordinarily left it to be administered by the
hands of one of his officials. Those to whom he com-
mitted this power are generally supposed to have
been the Prior, the Sub-prior, and the Deans.

Reprehension for Faults. — After making this
limitation of authority, our Holy Father ordains that
" those who are guilty of any faults " — by which we
may understand any faults ofthe kind just mentioned,
or any faults of any other kind — " must be reprehended
in the presence of all." Are we, then, from this pass-
age to conclude that the private reprehensions, of
which we have read in preceding chapters, are to be
dispensed with ? No ; all that is meant by this clause
is that if the faults are committed publicly, they must
be publicly reprehended ; if privately, then they
must be privately reprehended. Hence it is that
some commentators thus read the passage in ques-
tion : Peccantes miteni coram om7iibus ai^gtiantur —
" Let those who (thus) offend before all be repre-
hended."

Correction of Children. — The limitation of
authority for the indiscriminate use of the rod did
not include the children who had been consecrated to
the service of God in the monastery. Until their
fifteenth year these might be corrected and whipped
by any of the Monks who detected them in the com-
mission of any fault. But yet the merciful heart of
St. Benedict protects these little ones from being

Mtttual Obedience. 389

whipped with too heavy a hand, by ordaining that
any one who shall do this in a cruel and merciless
way shall himself be subjected to punishment. It is
jDrobable enough that though all the Monks had
authority to reprehend these children, yet only the
Monk under whose care they were placed had power
to inflict the penalty of the rod. Let us hope that
the fear which his birch inspired made the actual use
'Of it a matter of comparatively rare occurrence.

CHAPTER LXX.

MUTUAL OBEDIENCE.

Obedience to one another. — The sum-total
oi all the virtues which are exercised in religious life
may be said to be comprised in the virtue of obedi-
ence. It is the holocaust by which a man through
love of God sacrifices his will ;.and, in giving up that,
he offers up his whole being. With good reason,
therefore, does St. Benedict say that it is the path by
which we are to go unto God. Hence the practice
of this virtue ought to be most dear to us. In order
to enable us never to lose any opportunity of practis-
ing it, our Holy Father desires us to be obedient not
only to the Abbot and to our immediate Superiors,
but also to one another. This latter obedience is
only of counsel, and not of precept, like the former.
Therefore any one who does not practise it is not

39^ ^^^^<^ Teaching of St. Benedict.

guilty of sin. This mutual obedience is, of course,-
chiefly from the junior to his senior, but does not
exclude the obedience of the senior to the junior.
But how, it may be asked, can a Monk find an occa-
sion on which to exercise this obedience ? The duties
of obedience to Rule so fill up the day, that chances
for obedience to one another must be rare indeed.
Hildemar answers this difficulty by saying that he
who prepares food in the kitchen, to ministers guests,,
or tends the sick, is obedient to all : for he serves all.
He who, though unable actually to obey others, yet
IS willing to do so, is obedient to them. He who is
engaged in the same obedience in which others are
engaged may be obedient to them by carrying out
their wishes instead of his own. Thus those who
are all day occupied in yielding obedience to the Rule
may yet be obedient in the w^ay indicated by St.
Benedict in this chapter.

Motives for this Obedience. — There are three
motives which ought to urge us to be eager in the
practice of mutual obedience. First, that we may
thereby imitate our Divine Lord, Who obeyed not
only His Holy Mother and St. Joseph, but also those
who apprehended Him, reviled Him, and put Him to
death. Secondly, to hold in check our own self-will,
from which all our ills proceed. Thirdly, not to miss
any occasion of advancing in perfection, and of acquir-
ing the virtues in which perfection consists. Although
this obedience to one another is a matter only of
counsel, yet our Holy Father wishes that those who
will not follow it, or who, out of a spirit of contradic-
tion and of contention, refuse to obey their brethren,.

Religiotts Zeal. 39

should be rebuked for their churlishness and lack of
humility.

Conduct when rebuked. — It may happen that
the brother who has asked one of his juniors to do
some act for him, and who has been refused by him, will
feel somewhat nettled at his want of charity, and will
show the irritation, or even the righteous anger, which
that refusal naturally calls forth. Our Holy Father,
in these circumstances, orders the offender at once to
prostrate at the feet of him whom he has thus angered,
and to remain in that posture till the humility and
the repentance which it indicates have appeased the
wrath of him whom he has refused to obey. Also
whenever any one is reprehended by the Abbot, or
by any of the seniors, he must at once either pros-
trate, or, as is the custom in some monasteries, fall
upon his knees, and thus receive the reproof which he
has merited by his misconduct. By making the sign
of the Cross over the culprit, the offended person
signifies both the cessation, of his displeasure and the
pardon which he accords.

CHAPTER LXXI.

RELIGIOUS ZEAL.

Evil Zeal. — By zeal we mean a passionate ardour
for anything, which ardour may be for that which is
eood, and then the zeal with which we are carried
towards it is itself good ; or for evil, and then the

39^ The Teaching of St. Benedict.

zeal itself IS evil. Of this latter kind of zeal St. James
says : " If you have a bitter zeal, glory not ; for this
is not wisdom descending from above, but earthly,
sensual, devilish. For where envy and contention are,
there are inconstancy and every evil work." ^ It is
not at all impossible that such a zeal as this should
take possession of the heart of a man who has dedi-
cated himself to the service of God. If it does lay
hold of him, it does not usually cause him to mani-
fest an ardour for that which is unmistakably evil,
but for that which is apparently good, or which would
be good under certain conditions and in other circum-
stances. Suffering himself to be deluded by this
mask of goodness, the poor dupe discovers, perhaps,
only when it is too late, that his zeal has separated
him from God, and led him to the brink of hell.
Look, for instance, at the Religious who allows him-
self to scan with an unfavourable eye the actions of
Superiors, and the policy by which they are appar-
ently guided. He criticises them, he condemns them,
he attributes to them low unspiritual motives, he
ridicules them, he says smart things about them.
He sighs for abler men to take the lead in his monas-
tery, or his congregation, or his Order. He paints
before his imagination bright pictures of what might
be. He sighs and laments over that which is. He is
discontented, he gives expression to it, he becomes
cynical. All this he imagines to be quite right,
because he aims, as he thinks, at better things. He
has zeal, but not according to knowledge. He separ-
ates from God not only himself, but others, whose

^ Chap. ii. 14, 15.

Religious Zeal.^^^^ 393

respect for authority he diminishes, whose obedience
he weakens, whose hearts he fills with discontent, and
their wills with revolt against " the powers that be."
Unhappy the Religious who thus allows the very life
of his state to be so grievously wounded. Wretched
the monastery, or the congregation, or the Order, of
which the very foundations are undermined by the
evil zeal of men in whose hearts the devil has taken
up his abode.

Good Zeal. — There is, however, a zeal which is
good, consisting in an intense ardour to root out from
the heart all faults, defects, vices, and, as far as it lies
in the power of each, to help others to perform the
like work of perfection in their own souls. To the
exercise of this zeal our Holy Father exhorts us, and
in pointing out the various ways in which it may be
put in practice, he gives us a short summary of the
lessons which he has taught us in the Rule.

In the first place, then, our good zeal must mani-
fest itself in a readiness and in a desire to be before-
hand with one another in showing that reverence,
that respect, and that considerate kindness which
always mark the conduct of a man whose heart is at
peace with God, in harmony with his fellow-men, and
in submission to the will of his Superiors.

In the next place, it must appear in an earnest
endeavour to fulfil that Apostolic precept, by which
we are ordered "to bear one another's burdens."
Now, we are all imperfect both in body and in mind,
and the imperfections of the one and of the other
cannot fail to obtrude themselves upon the notice of
even our most indulgent friends. Some are slow of

394 The Teaching of St. Be7iedict.

intelligence, limited in capacity, with a very slender
stock of ideas and of views, with little power of con-
versation, with low ainls and an exceedingly prosaic
temper of mind. Others are quick-witted, they are
brimful of talent, they have a rich flow of ideas, they
have broad views and a facility of expression to set
them out clearly before the minds of other men, their
temperament is highly strung, fervid, imaginative,
poetic. They see everything in its brightest colours,
they are sanguine, full of hope and of enthusiasm. It is
easy to conceive what a source of annoyance each of
these classes of men will be to the other. Then there
are others who are uncultured in manner, w^ho are
rough, rude, uncouth, abrupt in speech, and utterly
regardless of all those delicate refinements of behaviour
which mark every movement of the thoroughly well-
bred man. Think what a source of nervous irritation
such as these will be to the polished gentleman who
has moved in good society, and who would feel as
great a shock at the transgressions of any of its canons
of good taste as a religiously-minded man would
experience on hearing an unseemly word. Yet men
of all these various characteristics, and who, in addi-
tion to these, may be afflicted with many bodily
infirmities, are to be met with in religious life. They
must all live together, they must meet with one an-
other, they must sit together, they must converse.
Nothing else will keep alive among them the spirit of
fraternal charity than the fixed determination to
practise that maxim of our Holy Father, " Patiently
to bear with one another's infirmities, whether these
are infirmities of mind or infirmities of body."

ReligioiLs Zeal. -— 395

One of the most efficacious means for infusing into
all hearts this admirable spirit of Christian forbear-
ance is the continual practice of that mutual obedience
which, in the preceding chapter, our Holy Father so
earnestly recommends. This is the third way in
which good zeal manifests its presence in the souL
That which causes annoyance and irritation, which is
the fruitful source of uncharitableness and of all the
misery which men have to endure from one another, is
the unwillingness of one man to submit his will and
his judgment to the will and the judgment of another.'
Take away this unwillingness, and all friction ceases,
and consequently all irritation and annoyance. There-
fore, if Religious be eager to vie with one another in
obedience ; if the contest among them be not for supre-
macy, but for the lowest place ; if it be the aim of each
to satisfy and to please his neighbour, then all will
live together in harmony, and each monastery will be
in very truth " a house of God."

The fourth way in which good zeal employs its
energy is in crushing selfish views and selfish motives
out of the heart. The implement by which any one
will be most effectually aided in the accomplishment
of this difficult task is the principle of always setting
the common v/eal before his own private advantage.
" Let no one," says St. Benedict, '' follow that which
he thinketh profitable to himself, but rather that
which is profitable to another." In the first place, let
him not seek his own convenience in his dealing with
his brethren, but rather their convenience. This will
furnish him with innumerable occasions of mortify-
ing his will, his judgments, his tastes ; of obeying the

39 6 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

wishes of others rather than his own ; of humbling
himself; of daily and hourly feeling the smart of the
thorns and the torture of the nails by which he is
fastened to the Cross of Christ. Thus it will enable
him to acquire that divine charity " which seeketh
not her own." In the next place, let him not seek his
own advantage with respect to the Order of which he
is a member, but the well-being and the advance-
ment of that body to which he has the honour to
belong. With regard to his place of residence, let
him be content to abide wheresoever he may most
materially further its interests; with regard to his-
occupations, let him apply himself with all the energy
of which he is master to quit himself well of those
which Superiors shall select for him ; with regard to
studies, let him pursue those which will be of most
use to his Order. In all things let him put self in
the background, and his duty to the Order in the
foremost place, both in his esteem and in his affections.
The exercise of fraternal charity constitutes the
fourth way in which good zeal manifests itself This
charity is not that merely natural love of friendship
which so often springs up among persons who are
thrown into close and intimate companionship with
one another. Nor is it that disorderly, indiscreet, pas-
sionate love which is based upon similarity of tastes,
or community of sentiments, or beauty of form. It
is rather that pure, chaste love of one another which
is inspired by true merit, by mutual esteem, by the
love of God, and by the remembrance that we are all
the adopted children of God, and brothers in Christ
Jesus.

Highest Perfection not i7i the Rule. 397

The fifth and the sixth way in which this good
zeal manifests itself are, first, by a filial 'fear of God^
Whom the Religious dreads to offend, not because
He is almighty in power and infinite in justice, and
therefore can punish with an arm of direful weight,
but because He is a good Father and merciful bene-
factor, Whose innumerable kindnesses have bound
his heart to Him as with the links of a golden chain.
Secondly, a childlike love of the Abbot, who in the
monastery holds the place of Christ, and must there-
fore be treated with all that honour, respect, and love
which are due to one who holds so exalted an office,,
so surpassing a dignity.

Lastly, good zeal is shown by making Jesus Christ
first, last, and above everything else, King, Lord, and
Master of the heart. He who shall endeavour to
exercise the ardour of his affection for God in all
these various ways will without doubt be brought by
the faithful Master Whom he serves to that life ever-
lasting which is to crown all those who live and work
only for God.

CHAPTER LXXH.

THE HIGHEST PERFECTION NOT CONTAINED IN

THE RULE.

The Beginning of Religious Life. — The Rule
of our Holy Father ends with the preceding chapter.
This present chapter, therefore, may be considered to
be but the epilogue to all that has gone before. In

398 ^">^^^ Teaching of St. Bc7iedict.

the prologue, our great legislator told us that his pur-
pose in drawing up this code of laws was to establish
a school of the service of God. He hoped that in so
doing he would ordain nothing that was either too
rigorous or too burdensome. Having come to the
end of his Rule, and once again casting a rapid glance
at his various enactments, he calls them " a mere
beginning of religious life." For if we compare that
which he has ordained with the stern, austere legis-
lation of others, who in point of penitential rigour
went far beyond that which he has imposed upon his
children, v/e may with truth admit that, Vv^hen set
beside the laws which they enforced, his Rule is mild-
ness itself In this respect only can his legislation be
said to fall beneath theirs. It is the deep humility of
this illustrious Saint which causes him thus to speak
of his Rule. He looked at the perfection which it
teaches with the eyes of one illuminated by the light
of the Holy Ghost, and saw towering over the height
which he proposes to us other heights stretching far
away into the realms of sanctity, attainable only'by
those who are favoured with exceptional graces, and
destined to execute exceptional deeds. To those who
embrace his institute he can promise at least that
beginning of religious perfection which he calls but a
certain measure of uprightness of manners, consisting ,
in the careful shunning of all vice, the fear, the love,
the worship of God, and in a certain orderly disci-
plined method of life.

The Holy Scripture, — Should any of hisy
children, however, desire to have a code of laws which
will lead him to the perfection of holy living, he wil]Ll

Highest Perfection not in the Rule, 399

find this, first of all, in the pages of the Sacred Scrip-
ture. These writings, inspired by the Spirit of Truth,
teach us that, after theknowledgeof God, the ground-
work of all spirituality is the reverential fear of that
Being of infinite sanctity. Out of this fear there
springs deep sorrow for having offended so excellent
a Father. Sorrow causes us to renounce the devil, the
world, and the flesh. This stripping of ourselves of
all that is most pleasing to the natural man generates
in our hearts deep humility. In consequence of this
we apply the curb of mortification to our will, and by
so doing we expel from our hearts all vices, and thus
acquire that purity in which, when combined with the
love of God and with humility, perfection consists.

The Precepts of the Fathers. — In the next
place, St. Benedict refers his children to the teaching
of the great Fathers, who are the chief exponents of
the Holy Scriptures. In his day those among them
whose explanations of the [sacred text were held in
the highest repute were St. Cyprian, St. Athanasius,
St. Basil, St. Gregory Nazianzen, St. John Chrysos-
tom, St. Hilary of Poictiers, St. Ambrose, St. Theo-
philus of Alexandria, St. Jerome, St. Prosper, and St.
Leo the Great.

The Conferences. — These Conferences, twenty-
four in number, were written by Cassian at the request
of many Bishops and of many holy Religious. They
are the result of the familiar conversations concerning
spiritual matters, and especially concerning matters

I pertaining to the religious life, which that illustrious
man and his colleague Genadius had held with the
more celebrated Religious and Hermits who dwelt in

400 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

different parts of the Egyptian deserts. The first ten
took place in the desert of Scetis, and were dedicated
by the author to the Bishops Leontius and Helladius.
The next seven were held in the Thebaid, and were
dedicated to Honoratus and to Eucherius, who were
either Bishops or Abbots. The remaining seven are
the result of conferences with the Monks in different
parts of Egypt, and were dedicated to Jovinianus,.
Minervius, Leontius, and Theodorus, who were them-
selves either Monks or Abbots ruling over monasteries..
In these precious treatises are contained all the teach-
ings of the greatest Saints of the early Church, their
advice concerning well-nigh every point of the spiritual
life, and the various rules which they give for leading
the soul to the closest possible union with God.

The Institutes of the Fathers. — This work
also was written by Cassian about the year of our
Lord 417 or 418, and was regarded by its author as
a continuous treatise consisting of twelve books, which
teach by precept and by example the perfection of
the monastic life. Genadius, however, divides it into
three [ parts, of which only the fourth book treats
expressly of that which gives the title to the whole
work, De Institutis Ccenobitarum, The first three-
books discuss the habit of the Monk, the canonical
mode of prayer used in monasteries, and the Psalms
which are employed in it. The remaining eight are
engaged in dealing with the nature of the principal
vices, with the remedies which must be employed for
their expulsion from the soul, and for the healing of
the wounds which they have inflicted upon it.

The Lives of the Fathers. — This is a work

Highest Perfection not m the Rule, 401

which contains the lives of the early Saints,the Hermits,
and the Martyrs, written partly in Greek and partly
in Latin by a variety of authors. It consists of ten
books, which are full of most interesting matter, well
adapted to instruct, to edify, and to inflame the soul
with the divine ardour which filled the hearts of these
spiritual giants, who so valiantly and so unceasingly
made war upon the enemies of our salvation.

Our Holy Father Basil.— St. Basil, Bishop of
Caesarea in Cappadocia, among many other works,
wrote what we might call three books of Rules : (i)
Regiilce Breviores ; (2) those same Rules more amply
developed ; (3) a work embracing both the former.
From the fact that St. Benedict calls him " our Holy
Father Basil," some have thought that he must have
followed these Rules, and have regarded the Saint as
his Father in the same sense in which we call St.
Benedict our Father. Such, however, is not the case.
St. Basil is called by St. Benedict " our Holy Father "
simply as a title of honour, which it was customary
for men in those times to give to those who either in
age or in merit had preceded them. Also it was a
title which used to be prefixed to books written by
Saints, and especially by Saints who had followed the
monastic profession. This may be seen in the works
of St. Basil, St. John Climacus, St. Germanus, Patri-
arch of Constantinople, and of many others. In the
Greek Martyrology our own Holy Father is so styled.
Therefore, by writing of St. Basil as "our Holy
Father," St. Benedict was simply giving him a title of
honour, which did not imply that he acknowledged
him as his Father in the monastic life^ except indeed

402 The Teaching of St. Benedict.

in a very general sort of way, inasmuch as he was a
predecessor in religion, and a writer of great authority
upon matters pertaining to the spiritual life.

Concluding Words of the Rule. — In some
editions of the Rule the present chapter ends with
these words : " Facientibus haec regna patebunt
superna. Amen " (" The kingdom of heaven shall be
thrown open to those who accomplish these precepts").
They are not, however, to be found in the older
Cassinese manuscripts, nor in that of St. Faro. They
are wanting, also, in the editions of the Rule by
Smaragdus, by St. Dunstan, and in some ancient
Codices published at Cologne and at Paris. It is
evident, also, that they were not to be found in the
edition used by Hildemar, for his commentary ends
thus : " Explicit traditio qnam Hildemarus Monaclms
expo suit super Regidam S. Bene die ti^ et tradidit disci-
pulis, Facientibus haec regna patebunt superna.
Amen." This proves that these last words were not
in the text which he used for his commentary. He
may have read them in other manuscripts, and as they
were found in his commentary, which was held in great
repute, they may thus have made their way into the
text of the Rule. It is thus that Dom Calmet explains
their presence in some of its various editions.

Hang J0eo gemper.

INDEX.

Abbot, character, duties, method
of teaching, 25, 45 ; requisites
for election, 348 ; qualities, 353;
example, 354; faults to be avoided
t>y) 356 ; meets distinguished
guests, 274 ; determines rank,
338 ; rank of in Eng. Bened.
Congreg., 339.

Abelard, on use of flesh-meat, 218.

Abstinence from flesh-meat, 217 ;
broken for sake of guest, 277.

Acus, meaning of, 289.

Admission of postulants, 297 ; of
novices, 298 ; of children, 316 ;
6f priests, 322.

Adolescence, 207.

Adventures of those who travelled,

380.

Age determines rank, 337.
Agenda, meaning of, 337.
Aix-la-Chapelle, Council of, 325.
Alienate, promise not to, 352.
Alleluia, when said, 130.
Alvarez de Paz, on manifestation

of conscience, 97.
Amalarius. See Preface.
Ambrose, St., hymns of, 114; Te

Deuin attributed to, 122.
Ambrosianum, meaning of, 114.
Amendment of manners, 313.
Anachoreta, 20.
Analogium, 117.
Ananias and Saphira, 296.
Angels present at prayer, 143.
Answer, a gentle, to be given, 183.
Antiphon, to sing with, 1 13 ; to sing

without, 125; order of intoning,

249; who intrusted with this duty,

250.

Archbishops, number of Benedic-
tine, II.

Artisans, 293.

Arrangement of Office left to Abbot,
139 ; of monastery, 373.

Arrogance, 184.

Athanasius, St., Creed of, 136.

Augustine, St. , on use of baths, 205;
reputed author of Te Deum^ 122.

Austerity, leave necessary to prac-
tise, 263.

Bakehouse, 375.

Bardesanes, 119,

Basil, St., why called *' Father " by
St. Benedict, 401.

Baths, use of, 205.

Bedding, 286 ; frequently to be
examined, 288.

Beds, 150 ; covering of, 287.

Benedicite, 126, 342.

Benedict, St., birth, education, life,
death, 1-5 ; Pope, XII., dispen-
sation granted by, 212.

Benedictus. See Canticle.

Bernard, St., on Lenten fast, 226 ;
on scope of Rule, 15.

Biberes, meaning of, 200.

Bishops, how received, 274 ; num-
ber of Benedictine, II.

Blacksmith, 375.

Blanket. See Lena.

Blessing, of reader, 210 ; of server,
200 ; of travellers, 377 ; at end
of Matins, 123 ; before the Les-
sons, 116 ; of the habit, 307 ; of
those who pass by, 342.
*^ Blessings," the, 126, 135.
Bodies under obedience, 189.

401

Index.

Boekh, on the Ilemina, 220.

Boherius. 'See Preface.

Bolster (capitale), 288.

Books, distribution of, 258.

Bossiiet, on Benedictine Rule, 11.

Boyhood, 207.

Boys, offering of to monastery, 316;
obligation of the promise made
t>yj 317 ; punishment of, 173 ;
surveillance of, 320 ; system of
education, 319.

Bracile, meaning of, 288.

Bread, Benedictine pound of, 214.

Breve, meaning of, 187.

*' Brother " to be prefixed to reli-
gious name, 341.

Brothers, "elderly and discreet,"
164 ; rank of lay, 340.

Calculation, what meant by sound,

108.
Caligi-e, what meant by, 284.
Calmet, Dom, account of, Preface;

bread -weight, 216.
Candle. See Lamp.
Canticle, 121; of Gospel, 126, 135;

of Deuteronomy, 128.
Capitale, 287.
Caramuel, on election of Abbot,

345.

Cardinals, number of Benedictine,
II.

Carpenter, 375.

Carthusians, vow of perpetual
abstinence, 310.

Cassian, on wine, 222 ; reading at
table, 208 ; Collations of, 229 ;
on Abbot's table, 29i;semi-Pela-
gianism of, 17; on impossible com-
mands,382; his Conferences, 399;
his ''Institutes," 400.

Catholic Fathers, 118.

Celebration, 128.

Cella Novitiorum, 298.

Cellarer, qualities of, 175 ; duties
of, 181 ; ceremony observed
when this chapter is read, 182.

Cenobite, ig.

Ceremony when admitting postu-
lants and novices, 297.

Chaplain, rank of, 339.

Chapter of faults, 245.

Charity, 68 ; fraternal, 396.

Charlemagne, 118, 215.

Chastity, 309.

Children, care of, 118 ; rank of, in
monastery, 337, 342 ; punish-
ment of, 243, 388; admission of,
316 ; education, 319.

Choir, mistakes in, 243.

Christ, guests received as, 273 ;
stability of, 312.

Cingulum, 153.

Clerics, admission of, 325.

Cloister, reasons for being out of,

25.

Clothed while asleep, 152.

Clothes, 186.

Clothing, 283, 286.

Coarseness not to be complained
of, 286.

Collationes, meaning of, 229 ;
modern meaning, 280.

Collects. See Blessing.

Colour of habit not to be com-
plained of, 285.

Commandments, 6%,

Commands, hard, grave, impossi-
ble, 381.

Communion, 211.

Community, number in a, 134.

Companion on journey, 377.

Completum est. See Missa^.

Compline, silence after, 228 ; in
the West, in the East, 135.

Conclusion of Rule, 402.

Conferences. See Collationes.

Confession, 97, 247 ; fifth degree
of humility, 96.

Congregation, £ng. Bened. ; rule
for determining rank in, 336.

Conscience, manifestation of, 97.

Contending with Superiors, 58.

Contentment, 97.

1

Index.

405

Contract, tacit, insufficient for
solemn vows, 315.

Conversationis pro modo, meaning
of, 151.

Conversio morum, meaning of, 313.

Cook, duties of, 199 ; privileges of,
200.

Correction, grades of, 187.

Council, calling of, 46 ; secretary
of, 51 ; method of^ 52 ; when
Superiors must consult, 53; when
follow, 55 ; duties of, 55.

Councillor, 50.

Counsel, necessity for taking, 49 ;
manner of giving, 57.

Courtesy shown to guests, 276.

Cowl, description of, 284 ; emblem
of religious life, 306.

Craesbeeck, on manifestation of con-
science, 97.

Crafts, Craftsmen, 293, 375.

Creed of St. Athanasius, 136.

Cuculla. See Cowl.

Cucullus. See Hood.

Cultellus, 289.

Cyrilla, nurse of St. Benedict, I.

Day, hours of, ace. to St. Benedict,

254.

Dean, qualifications, duties, appoint-
ment of, 148.

Decretals, author of. 66.

Defence, mutual, when forbidden,

384-

Definitors,, rank of, 339; of Eng-
land, 339 ; electors, 348 ; the
real electors, 47, 350.

Delinquents, how to make satisfac-
tion, 124, 241.

Denunciation, 246.

*' Deo gratias, " used by Monks,
372.

Deuteronomy, canticle of, 128.

Dial, sun-, 249.

Dinner, 212 ; time of, 225.

" Directum in," meaning of, 125.

Discipline, meaning of, regular, 187.

Dishes, number of, 212.
Distribution of books,' 258.
Dom, the title, T42.
" Domine labia mea," &c., why

thrice repeated, ill.
Domnus, distinction between, and

dominus, 342.
Dormitory, silence in, 82 ; all in

one, 152.
Draught of wine, 211.
Drink, measure of, 218.
Drunkenness, 219.
Duty of Secretary of Council, 51 ;

of Provost, 366.

Eagerness for "Work of God," 303,

Earlier, for Matins, 120.

Easter, controversy about, 108,

Eating, punishment for eating out-
side monastery, 268.

Elders, who they were, who they
are, 49; reverence for, 341.

Election of Abbot, 344; of Prior,

350.

Elements of obedience, 74.

Elpis, hymns of, 116.

Encouragement to rise, 153.

Enemy to be prayed for and loved,
70.

Entertainment of guests, 273 ; of
poor and of strangers, 277.

Ephrem, St., 120.

Epimenides, testimony of, about
Cretans, 34.

Eucharist. See Communion.

Eulogia, meanings of, 281.

Evensong, 135.

Example, Abbot must teach by, 31.

Excess, how to be avoided, 357.

Excommunication, kinds of, 154 ;
for what inflicted, 155 ; mode
of procedure, 156 ; for light
faults, 157; keeping company
with those under, 161 ; Abbot's
care of those under, 162; form
of, 242 ; power of restricted,

387-

4o5

ludi

ex.

Ex-president, rank of, 339.

Expulsion, 166.

Eyes, custody of the, 105.

Faith, foundation of rehgious life,

67 ; profession of, 352.
False brethren to be borne with,

Fast, regular and ecclesiastical, 212;
punishment for offences, 173 ;
broken for guests, 277.

Father, meaning of in Prologue, 17;
of monachism,, ig ; of monas-
tery, 25.

Fatherly, 179.

Fathers, orthodox and Catholic,
118; lives of, 231 and 401;
precepts of, 399 ; institutes of,
400.

Faults, punishment of light, 151,
245 ; chapter of, 245.

Fear, filial, 397 ; first degree of
humility, 90.

Feasts of Saints, how Matins to be
said on, 129.

Feet of guests washed, 277 ; of
Monks, 199.

Ferial days, 127.

Ferramenta, meaning of, 186.

Festival, how it differs from solem-
nity, 129.

Ffoulkes, on Athanasian Creed,

Flesh-meat, abstinence from, leave

to eat, 217.
Florentius, the priest, 4.
Formula of profession, 308.
Fowl, Monks allowed to eat,

217.
Fruit at refection, 214.
Fugitive, when considered to be a,

how to be received, how often,

170.
Funis. See Cingulum, 153.

Gamut, origin of names of notes,
116.

Garments made to lit j better for

travelling, 286.
Genesis of humility, 89.
Genuflection at prayer, 266.
Gifts, leave for, 282 ; distributed at

will of Abbot, 282.
*' Gloria in excelsis," 122.
'* Gloria Patri," second part of, by

whom added, 112; at end of

Psalms, 112 ; to rise and bow at,

121.
Gluttony, 217.
God-fearing, 178.
Good to do. Abbot's aim, 36 1.
Gospel read by Abbot, 123.
Government, Abbot's, 361.
Grades to pass through, 187.
Graphium, 189, 289.
Gregory, St., hymns of, 115 ; on

Monks craveUing alone, 376.
Guests, reception of, 273-279.
Gyrovagus, meaning of, 21 ; in

spirit, 24.

Habit, reception to, 297 ; blessing
of, 309.

H^ften, account of, Preface ; mani-
festation of conscience, 97.

Handkerchief, 290.

"Hands of guests washed, 277.

Hardy, Sir T, D., on Utrecht Psal-
ter, 138.

Harmonius, 119.

Harmony of chapters xli. and xlviii.,
225.

Hearers, behaviour of, in refectory,
210.

Help for those who need it, 185.

^'Hemina," various opinions about
the, 219, 221.

Heptateuch, 231;

Hildegarde, St.^ on use of flesh -
meat, 2i8 ; account of, Preface.

Hildemar, on distributing books,
258 ; oblation of children, 316/;
perpetuity of obligation, 317 ;
election of Abbot, 345 ; Monks

Index^

407

returning from journey, 379 ;

account of his life, Preface.
Holiness required in Abbot, 354.
Honour paid to guests, 273.
Hood, shape of, 284.
Hope,, 68.
Horarium, 257.
Hose, 284.
Hospitality, 273.
Hour, eighth, of night, log; meaning

of suitable, 185 ; announcing the,

248 ; means of determining the,

249 ; ways of making known the,
249.

*' Hours," punishment of laggards

at the, 238; when obligation of

the, imposed, 265.
Humiliation, novices to be eager

for, 304.
Humility, definition of, Z% ; ladder

of, 89 ; in prayer, 145.
Hymns, authors of, 114.

Idle words, definition of, their pun-
ishment, 80.

Idleness an enemy of the soul,
remedies for, 250.

Impossibility, if an, is ordered, 75,

381.

Inclination at Gloria Patri, 117.

Incorrigible to be expelled, 166 ;
may be readmitted, 169; on
what conditions, how and how
often, 171.

*' In directum," 125, 134.

Infantes, who they were, how pun-
ished, 322.

Infirm. See Sick.

Infirmarian, qualities of, 201.

Infirmity, how to be borne, 202.

Instability, how to be conquered,
312.

Installation of Abbot, 346 ; pre-
sent mode of, 348 ; of Prior, 350.

Institution. See Installation.

Instruments of " good works," d-^ ;
history of, 65 ,

Interval after Matins, how spent,

no.
Invitatory, how to be said, 112.
Isidore, St., 289 ; the pseudo, 66.
Italian pound-weight, 216.

Jacob, ladder of, 8g.

Jealousy to be avoided, 359.

Jerome, St., on use of flesh-meat,
218.

Jesuits, obedience of, to Pope, 310.

Jokes, innocent, not forbidden, 80.

Journey, not made alone, 376;
prayers for those on a, 378 ; re-
turn from a, 379.

'^Jube domne," 117.

Judgment, Last to be feared by
Superiors, 338; subjection of, 75.

Kiss of peace given after prayer,

275-

Kitchen, servers in the, 195; ex-
emption from serving in, 196;
present discipline for serving in,
197 ; Abbot's, 278.

Knife, 289 ; laid aside during sleep,

153-
Knowledge, Abbot must have, of

subjects, 37 ; what kind of,

requisite in Abbot, 253.

Kyrie eleison, how and when to be

said, 118.

Labour, obligation of, 251 ; when
begins, when ends, 255.

Ladder, of obedience, 77 ; of hu-
mility, 89.

Lamp in dormitory, 151.

Lanfranc, surveillance of boys, 320.

Late, for table, &c., punished, 338.

Lauds, when to be said, 125.

Laughter, excessive, reprobated,
104.

*' Laus tibi Domine," 1 1 1.

Laymen, how received, 274.

Ivcarning, Abbot's, 353.

Leave to persevere asked for^ 305,

4c8

Index.

Lectionary, Alcuin's, ii8.
Lectisternia, meaning of, 286.
Legislation, present, concerning

vows, 313.
Lena, meaning of, 287.
Lent, mode of observing, 260.
Lessons, read seated 117; omitted

in summer and on account of

labour, 119 ; whence taken, 122 ;

sometimes shorter, 124; short

said by heart, 126.
Letters, 280.
Libra propensa, 211 ; mercatoria,

215.

Life, merit of, determines rank, 338.

Light, all things to be done by day-,
226.

Litany, meaning of, 118, 127.

Liturgy, chapters on, 107.

Loaf, weight of, 216.

Loss of anything to be punished, 187.

Love, equal to all, 26 ; more to
the perfect, 28 ; Abbot must
inspire, 42 ; means to acquire
power to inspire, 43 ; of neigh-
bour, 70.

Lowliness, seventh degree of hu-
mility, 98.

Lucernarium, 135.

Mabillon. See Preface.
Magister, 50 ; rank, 339.
Magnificat at Vespers, 135. See

Canticle.
Manners, amendment of, 312.
Manual labour, 2 50 ; obligation

of, 252.
Mappula, 209.
Marks of vocation, 303.
Martene, account of. Preface.
Mason, 375.
Mass, 135.
Master of guests, 279 ; of novices,

301 ; meaning of in Prologue, 17.
Matins, hour for, 257.
Matta, 286.
Matters, weighty, &c., 47.

Mattress, 287.

Matutini, meaning Lauds, ill.

Meals, days for two, 225 ; eating
between, 240.

Meanest, contentment with, 97.

Meditation no.

Mental prayer, 272.

Mercy, works of, 71.

Mill, water-, 374.

Mind in accord with voice, 143.

Miserere, why said at Lauds, 127.

*' Missce sint," explanations of, 133.

Missas tenere, meaning of, 212.

Mistakes, atonement for, 243.

Mixtum, 200, 21 1.

Mode of election. Abbots, 348;.
Priors, 350.

Modulation, meaning of, 120.

Modus, meaning number, 129.

Momsen, on Hemina, 220.

Monastery, guests coming to, 274.

Monk, kinds of, 19; grades of,
165 ; stranger, 326.

Monte Cassino, 5.

Morum, Conversio, 312.

Motives, in Prologue, 18 ; to use
'' Instrumenta," 71 ; of obedi-
ence, 73 ; for mutual obedience,

390.
Much speaking, *]%.
Munuscula 281.
Murmuring, to be avoided, 222 ;

various ways of, punishment of,

193-
Music, regulations about, 1 42.

Mussitatio, meaning of, 210.

Name, forbidden to call by simple,

340.
*• Natalitiis," meaning of, 129.
Nazarites, abstinence of, 222.
Necessary things to be hoped for

from Abbot, 190; to be given,

190, 288.
Needle, 289.
Negligent, place for, at Divine

Office, 238.

Index.

409

Neighbour, love of, 70.

Nicsea, Council of, on Easter, 109 ;
adds to '' Gloria Patri," 112.

Night hours, 257.

Noble, sons of the, offered, 316 ;
not preferred to poor, 338.

Nocturns not divided, 118

*'Nonnus," meaning of, 341.

Novice, admission, trial of, cere-
mony of reception, Master of,
297. 302.

Novitiate apart from monastery,
300.

Oath at profession, 308.

Obedience, scope of Rule, 17 ;
blind, 93 ; humility in, 95 ;
eagerness for, 303 ; elements of,
74 ; qualities, effects, defects,

77-
Oblation, meaning of, 316.

Obligation of Rule, 12 ; of recit-
ing hours, 265 ; of children to
monastic life, 317.

Observances, why minutely ex-
plained, 232.

Obstinacy to be avoided, 357.

Offences, satisfaction for, 241.

Office, standing at Divine, 143 ; not
obligatory in simple vows, 315 ?
how recited out of choir, 265 ;
promise not to prolong term of,

352.

Old men, who are, and how antici-
pate canonical hours, 207.

Opus Dei, care of souls, 141. See
Office.

Oratory, only prayer allowed in,
270 ; silence in, 82.

Order of Psalms, 127 ; rule for
determining, 336.

Orders not received in simple vows,

315-
Orthodox Fathers, 118.
Ostiarius. See Porter.
Ounces in Italian, in Roman pound,

214.

Our Father, why said at Lauds and

at Vespers, 128.
Ownership, abdication of, 188 ;

punishment of, igo.

Pachomius, St., iig.

Pall, the altar, 316.

Parents, rights of, 330.

Pasch, when celebrated by the Jews

108.
Pass through the grade, 187.
Patience with defects, 393.
Patriarchs, Benedictine, ii.
Pater noster said aloud, 128.
Pax, order in receiving, 337.
Pedules, 284.

Pelagianism, caution against, 1 1 .
Pen, i8g, 289.
Perez, manifestation of conscience,

g7 ; sound calculation, 128.
Perfection, highest, not in Rule, 397
Perseverance thrice asked for, 306.
Peter the Venerable, hymns of, 116;

on reciting Office out of choir,

267 ; the Deacon, hymns of, 115.
Petitio. See Compline ; also 317.
Pistrinum, 375.
Pius IX., Pope, legislation of, con-

cerning vows, 314.
Poma, meaning of, 214.
Poor admitted to monastery, 277 ;

old garments given to, 286.
Poorest, should be content with

that which is, 97.
Popes, Benedictine, 11.
Porter, duties of, 370, 373.
Postulant, trial of, 2g7.
Pottage. See Mixtum.
Pound, different weight of the, 214.
Poverty, 188.

Praedicator, 50 ; rank of, 33g.
Practices, religious, for Lent, 261.
Praises, the, 126.
Prayer, mental, 272 ; for travellers,

377 ; for absent, 370.
Precept, difference between, and

EE

410

Index.

Prepositus, 364, 368.
Presents forbidden, 281.
President, rank of, 339 ; mode of

election, 348.
Priests, 332, 335.
Prime, 132.
Prior, 211, 239, 240.
Procedure at Council, 52.
Procurator in Roman Court, of

Province, 339. See Cellarer.
Prodigality to be avoided, 178.
Profession, form of, 308 ; ceremony

of, 306 ; solemn, must be explicit,

315; of faith, 352.
Prologue to Rule, 14; meaning of

Father, Master in, 17.
Promptitude, how to be understood,

235.
Propensa. See Pound.

Proper Psalms to day, 129.

Property to be carefully guarded,

186.
Propriety, {i.e. ownership) punished,

190.
Provmcials, rank of, 339.
Provost. See Prepositus.
Prudence of Abbot in correction,

356.

Prudentius, hymns of, 115.

Psalmody, discipline of, 140.

Isalms, why third Psalm said at
Matins, 112; difference between
canticle and a, 121; order of inton-
ing 249 ; twelve at Matins, 119.

Psalter of Utrecht, 137.

Punishment, corporal, 244 ; of
boys, 173; of prepositus, 367.

Puro nomine, signification of, 341 .

Quadragesima. See Lent, 260.

Quadrupeds, flesh of, not to be
eaten, 217.

Qualities of obedience, 73, 75 ;
requisite for office of President,
Prior, &c., 348 ; of Abbot, 353.

Quartodecimans, 108.

Quicumque vult, 136.

Rabanus on use of flesh-meat, 218.

Rank, rule for determining, 336.

Reader, blessing of, 209 ; receives
food before his office, 211; faults
to be avoided by, 210.

Reading at table, 208 ; in Lent,
258 ; of Rule to novices, 305.

Rebukes, how to be received, 391.

Reception of guests, poor, stran-
gers, 273 ; to habit, 298.

Recited, "In directum," 125, 134.

Recreation not provided for, 78.

Refection in summer, &c. 223.

Refectory, coming late to the, 239 ',
Abbot's table not in the, 292.

Regimen, Definitors of, their rank,

339.

"Regula Magistri" on observance of
Lent, 264 ; on measure of food,
213.

Religious discontented, 392.

Remedy for idleness, 251.

Renuita. See Sarabite, 21.

Reprehension for faults, 381.

Representations, when and how-to
be made to Superiors, 383.

Responsory, how to be said with
" Gloria Patri," 117.

Reverence, rules for mutual, 340.

Rising, hour for, 108.

Rock, meaning of to dash against,
18.

Rod, use of restricted, 387.

Roman pound-weight, 214.

Romanus the Monk, 2.

Rug. See Lena, 287.

Rule, to rule, not end of Abbot's
office, 363 ; scope of the, 15 ;
date of composition, 6 ; division
of its chapters. 8, 21 ; obliga-
tion of, 12 ; purpose of, 24 ; fre-
quently read and explained, 375;
thrice read to novices, 305 ; Bos-
suet on the, II ; principles on
which founded, 15 ; spirit of,
16 ; departures from, 59 ; rea-
sons for these, 61 ; hturgical

1

Index.

411

chapters, 107; for determining

and of Mary, 84.; not perpetual.

rank, 336 ; for mutual obedi-

78 ; in what places to be ob-

ence. 340 ; read thrice every

served, 81, 210.

year, 374 ; called holy, 367.

Sin, deadly, 69.

Runaways to be received and how

Singularity to be avoided, 100.

often, 170.

Sleep, midday, permitted^ 255.

Slovenliness, punishment of, 187.

Sacristy, silence in, %t^.

Smaragdus, Abbot, manifestation

Sagum, meaning of, 287.

of conscience, 97.

Saints, Benedictine, 11.

Sober, meaning of, 177.

Sale of work, 295.

Sobriety, mental, 255.

Salutation of guests, 276.

Socks, 284.

Sarabite, 21, 24.

Solemnity, 19.

Satisfaction for faults, 124, 241.

Speaking, no time assigned for, 78;

Saturday, general washing, igg.

rules to be observed in, 102.

Scandal, thorns of, 128.

Stability, vow of, 410.

Scapular, 214.

Statutes, difference between, and

School of obedience, 14.

precepts, 12.

Scourge, power to use, not given

Stockings, 283.

to all, 387.

Strangers, how received, 277 ;

Scripture not always Holy Writ,

Monks who are, 329 ; admoni-

91 ; models of perfection to be

tions given by, 328 ; dismissal

found in, 398 ; read to guests,

of, 330-

276.

Stripes, boys punished by, 174.

Scurrilitas condemned, 79.

Study, no.

Seals, three, of vocation, 303.

Sub-prior, rank of, 340 ; appoint-

Secretary of council, his duties.

ment, qualities, duties, 368.

51.

Substance of monastery, 186.

Sedulius, hymns of, 115.

Summum. See silence.

Self-knowledge the first degree of

Sunday, Office on, 108.

humility, 90.

Supererogation, works of, for Lent,

Self-will, abnegation of, go.

263.

Seniors, who are, 49 ; reverence

Supper, 223.

due to, 341 ; who are the spiri-

Supplication of Litany, 118.

tual, 97.

Surfeiting, 217.

Senipeta, 164.

Surveillance, 320,

Server, blessing of the, 200.

"Suscipe," thrice sung at profes-

Seven a sacred number, 131.

sion 308.

Sext. See Hours, Divine Office.

Suspicion to be avoided 59.

Shirts worn by Monks, 284.

Symbol of St. Athanasius, 136.

Shoemakers, 375.

Sympect, Sympsectae, 164,

Shoes worn by Monks, 283.

Synaxis, 125.

*' Sic finiantur." See Missae, &c.

Sick, care of the, 181, 206.

Table, Abbot's, 290.

Signals for Divine Office, 24g.

Tablets, 189.

Signs, speaking by, 210.

Talebearers, 246.

Silence, reasons for, ^-^ ; of Jesus

Te decet laus, 123.

412

Index.

**Te Deum," history of, 122 ; sung

at installation, 352.
Temporalities, too great solicitude

about, 357.
Temptations, how overcome, 18.
*' Tenere Missas," meaning of, 334.
Tepidity in obedience, "]"],
Tokens, 281.

Tongue, difficulty of ruling, 84.
Tonsure, 21.
Tools, iron, 186.
Training of novices, 305.
Trithemius. See Preface.
Trumpet for calling to Office, 249.
Turbulentus, 177.
Turpiloquium. See Scurrilitas.
Turrecremata, Cardinal, 97 ; and

Preface.
Two dishes,225.
Typhus, 184.

Understanding, to sing with, 141.
Unselfishness, 395.
Uprightness of manners, 398.
" Ut queant laxis," hymn which

gives the names to the notes of

the gamut, 116.

Vaison, Council of, 66.
Venantius, hymns of, 115.
*'Venite," invitatory, 112.
Versicle, 116.
Vespers, hour for, 135.
Vessels, sacred, 181.
Vico-Varro, Monks of, 3.
Vigilias, meaning Matins, no.
Vilitas, {i.e. poorest), 97.

Vinolentus. See Wine, 222, 218.
Virtues opposed to deadly sins,

69.
Visitation, duties of councillors at,

.55.
Vitruvius on water-mills, 374.
Vocation, marks of, 303.
Voice should agree with mind, 143.
Vote, consult! ve, decisive, 47, 350 ;

for President, for Prior, 47, 349,

350.

Vow, 309 ; stability, 310 ; legisla-
tion concerning, 313 ; poverty,
188; amendment, 312.

Vulgate not quoted by St. Bene-
dict, 18.

Water requisite for monastery, 374.

Weak, help for, 198.

Weavers, 375.

Weight, the bread, 214.

Will, self-, is punished, 91 ; under
obedience, i8g.

Wine, abstinence from, 222 ; mea-
sure of, 218.

Words, idle, 80 ; Abbot should
teach by, 35 ; scurrilous, 79 ;
which provoke to laughter, 81.

Work, 293 ; eagerness for, of God,

303-
Year, division of, 107.
Youth, 207.

Zeal, good, bad, 391 ; exercise of

good, 393.
Zona. See Cingulum.

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Monthly.

SOULIER, REV. P.

Life of St. Philip Benizi, of the Order of the Servants
of Mary. Crown 8vo 080

**A clear and interesting account of the life and labours of this
eminent Servant of Mary." — American Catholic Qiiarterly.

"Very scholar-like, devout and complete." — Dublin Review.

"The pleasure with which we have perused the work from cover to
cover may possibly go some little way towards proving the success
which has attended the author's efforts." — Month.

THOMPSON, EDWARD HEALY, (M.A.)

The Life of Jean-Jacques Olier, Founder of the
Seminary of St. Sulpice. New and Enlarged Edition.
Post Svo, cloth, pp. xxxvi. 628 . . . . o 15 o

" It provides us with just what we most need, a model to look up to
and imitate ; one whose circumstances and surroundings were suffi-
ciently like our own to admit of an easy and direct application to our
own personal duties and daily occupations." — Dublin Review.

"We unhesitatingly recommend the book to priests and people. It
is full of sound doctrine and spiritual wisdom, not taught by word
only, but by the far more efficacious process of example." — Tablet.

ULLATHOBNE, BISHOP.

Endowments of Man, &c. New and revised edition . o 10 6

Groundwork of the Christian Virtues : A course of

Lectures. . o 10 6

Christian Patience, the Strength and Discipline of the

Soul o 10 6

Ecclesiasticar Discourses 060

WARD, WILFRID.

The Clothes of Religion, A reply to popular Positivism. 036

"Very witty and interesting." — Spectator.

" Really models of what such essays should be." — Church Quarterly
Reviezv.